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Assisted Human
Reproduction Act to regulate the financial aspects of contracts between intended parents and surrogate mothers. According to research, surrogate mothers are mostly motivated by their low socioeconomic status or family debt; they are more likely to be forced into surrogacy due to financial pressures. In 2020, Section 12 of the Assisted Human Reproduction Act provides for the reimbursement of expenses and monetary compensation to the surrogate mother to alleviate the financial burden associated with surrogacy. According to this proposed regulation, the reimbursement of eligible expenses is not obligatory. Aiming at emphasizing the voluntary nature of the gesture. The proposed regulation provides a non-exhaustive list of different categories of eligible expenses, such as parking fees, travel expenses, caregiver expenses, meals, psychological consultations, etc. Additionally, the surrogate mother can be reimbursed for any lost wages during pregnancy if she obtains written confirmation from a qualified physician that the work posed a risk to the pregnancy.
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women facing poverty in developing countries, others purport that the lack of legislation in such countries often leads to much of the profit accruing to middlemen and commercial agencies rather than the gestational carriers themselves. It has been argued that under laws of countries where surrogacy falls under the umbrella of adoption, commercial surrogacy can be considered problematic as payment for adoption is unethical, but not paying a gestational carrier for her service is a form of exploitation. Both opponents and supporters of surrogacy have agreed that implementing international laws on surrogacy can limit the social justice issues that gestational carriers face in transnational surrogacy.
806:, the wicked king of Mathura, had imprisoned his sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva because oracles had informed him that her child would be his killer. Every time she delivered a child, he smashed its head on the floor. He killed six children. When the seventh child was conceived, the gods intervened. They summoned the goddess Yogamaya and had her transfer the fetus from the womb of Devaki to the womb of Rohini (Vasudeva's other wife who lived with her sister Yashoda across the river Yamuna, in the village of cowherds at Gokulam). Thus the child conceived in one womb was incubated in and delivered through another womb.
536:
2014a: 84â94). According to U.S. Department of State, Bureau of
Consular Affairs, for a child born abroad to be a U.S. citizen one or both of the child's genetic parents must be a U.S. citizen. In other words, the only way for a foreign born surrogate child to acquire U.S. citizenship automatically at birth is if they are the biological child of a U.S. citizen. Furthermore, in some countries, the child will not be a citizen of the country in which they are born because the gestational carrier is not legally the parent of said child. This could result in a child being born without citizenship.
202:
cannot be achieved either. All these precarious factors increases the safety risks of artificial surgeries such as egg retrieval and insemination. Moreover, the underground contracts can inflict serious physiological harm on surrogate mothers. Surrogacy agencies ignore surrogate mothers' health risks and deaths: enforced fetal sex selection through forced abortions are very common, and multiple implantations and fetal reduction procedures may also be repeated on the same surrogate mother, causing health hazards such as miscarriage, infertility, and even death.
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1005:
29:
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to the agreement has a change of heart: if a surrogate changes her mind and decides to keep the child, the intended mother has no claim to the child even if it is her genetic offspring, and the couple cannot get back any money they may have paid the surrogate; if the intended parents change their mind and do not want the child after all, the surrogate cannot get any money to make up for the expenses, or any promised payment, and she will be left with legal custody of the child.
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survival but about human dignity and respect. Thus, decisions cannot be defined as involving agency if they are driven by coercion, violence, or extreme poverty, which is often the case with women in developing countries who pursue surrogacy due to economic need or aggressive persuasion from their husbands. On the other end of the spectrum, it has been argued that bans on surrogacy are violations of human rights under the existing laws of the
979:. Eligibility, processes and costs differ from country to country. Fertility tourism for surrogacy is driven by legal restrictions in the home country or the incentive of lower prices abroad. Previously popular destinations, India, Nepal and Thailand have all recently implemented bans on commercial surrogacy for non-residents. China is also a famous destination, even though surrogacy is legally banned.
659:). When Chinese people regard blood relations as an important pathway to demonstrate filial piety and family intimacy, these traditional concepts are rooted in the cognitive norm of society. Such emphasis on biological parents and blood relations undoubtedly resulted in conflicts with the practice of surrogacy, which regards childbirth as only a physiological process.
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do not participate in the upbringing process. However, there are also opinions that this separation from the children is not voluntary for surrogate mothers, but is forced by third-party agencies or restricted by unfair contracts. They can only give up the right to raise their children and send them away despite suffering great psychological and emotional trauma.
991:
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parentage of a child. These orders usually require the consent of all parties involved, sometimes even including the husband of a married gestational surrogate. Most jurisdictions provide for only a post-birth order, often out of an unwillingness to force the gestational carrier to give up parental rights if she changes her mind after the birth.
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couple denies the child any claim to its "gestational carrier" and to its biological parents if the egg and/or sperm is/are not that of the contracting parents. In addition, they claim that the child has no right to information about any siblings he or she may have in the latter instance. The relevance of disclosing the use of surrogacy as an
587:, it is argued that gestational carriers may face psychological challenges that cannot be offset by the (limited) economic benefits of surrogacy. Other psychological issues are noted, such as the implications of gestational carriers emotionally detaching themselves from their babies in anticipation of birth departure.
55:
of surrogacy. Surrogate mothers are usually introduced to parent(s) in need of surrogacy through third-party agencies, or other matching channels. They are usually required to participate in processes of insemination (no matter traditional or IVF), pregnancy, delivery, and newborn feeding early after birth.
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Another point of contention surrounding surrogacy within the Jewish community is the issue of defining motherhood. There are generally three conflicting views on this topic: 1) the ovum donor is the mother, 2) the gestational carrier is the mother, and 3) the child has two mothersâboth the ovum donor
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wherein women's bodies are exploited and children are commodified. As Jews possess the religious obligation to "actively engage in the redemption of those who are enslaved", practices seen as involving human exploitation are morally condemned. This thinking aligns with concerns brought forth by other
762:
of the
Catholic Church states that: "Techniques that entail the dissociation of husband and wife, by the intrusion of a person other than the couple (donation of sperm or ovum, surrogate uterus), are gravely immoral." Many proponents of this stance express concern that the sanctity of marriage may be
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Correspondingly, this value of kinship relations strongly affects the social status of surrogate mothers. They are easily considered "heartless" or "don't care about their own children" in
Chinese society because they are only responsible for the birth process and hand over the children to others and
647:
While many people believe that surrogacy exploits women, uses their organs as a tool for making money and objectifies their reproductive rights, the biggest ethical consideration faced by surrogacy in most societies, especially in China, is contradicting traditional
Chinese values. This is one of the
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Those who view surrogacy as a social justice issue argue that it leads to the exploitation of women in developing countries whose wombs are commodified to meet the reproductive needs of the more affluent. While opponents of this stance argue that surrogacy provides a much-needed source of revenue for
556:
Any medical organization involved in surrogacy will be considered as law violation, including any institution that organizes, implements, or facilitates egg retrieval and sale of women. Statistics found more than 400 surrogacy agencies facilitate the birth of more than 10,000 surrogate children every
482:
The US, Ukraine, Russia and
Georgia have the most liberal laws in the world, allowing commercial surrogacy, including for foreigners. Several Asian countries used to have liberal laws, but the practice has since been restricted. In 2013, Thailand banned commercial surrogacy, and restricted altruistic
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would. Preimplantation risks of the embryo include unintentional epigenetic effects, influence of media which the embryo is cultured on, and undesirable consequences of invasive manipulation of the embryo. Often, multiple embryos are transferred to increase the chance of implantation, and if multiple
54:
While a surrogacy relationship or legal agreement contains the gestational carrier and the child's parent(s) after birth, the gestational carriers are usually being referred as surrogate mothers. Surrogate mothers are the woman who carries and gives birth to a baby for another person, in such process
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Other sources state that surrogacy is not objectionable in the Jain view as it is seen as a physical operation akin to any other medical treatment used to treat a bodily deficiency. However, some religious concerns related to surrogacy have been raised within the Jain community including the loss of
446:
A systematic review of 55 studies examining the outcomes for surrogacy for gestational carriers and resulting families showed that there were no major psychological differences in children up to the age of 10 years old that were born from surrogacy compared to those children born from other assisted
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A few jurisdictions do provide for pre-birth orders, generally only in cases when the gestational carrier is not genetically related to the expected child. Some jurisdictions impose other requirements in order to issue birth orders: for example, that the intended parents be heterosexual and married
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Some jurisdictions specifically prohibit only commercial and not altruistic surrogacy. Even jurisdictions that do not prohibit surrogacy may rule that surrogacy contracts (commercial, altruistic, or both) are void. If the contract is either prohibited or void, then there is no recourse if one party
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Although gestational surrogates generally report being satisfied with their experience as surrogates, there are cases in which they are not. Unmet expectations are associated with dissatisfaction. Some women did not feel a certain level of closeness with the couple and others did not feel respected
256:
In gestational surrogacy, the child is not biologically related to the surrogate, who is often referred to as a gestational carrier. Instead, the embryo is created via in vitro fertilization (IVF), using the eggs and sperm of the intended parents or donors, and is then transferred to the surrogate.
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or endometrial cancer can also lead to surgical removal of the uterus. Past implantation failures, history of multiple miscarriages, or concurrent severe heart or renal conditions that can make pregnancy harmful may also prompt women to consider surrogacy. The biological impossibility of single men
70:
Where commercial surrogacy is legal, third-party agencies may assist by finding a surrogate and arranging a surrogacy contract with her. These agencies often obtain medical tests to ensure healthy gestation and delivery. They also usually facilitate legal matters concerning the intended parents and
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It is argued that in commercial surrogacy, the rights of the child are often neglected as the baby becomes a mere commodity within an economic transaction of a good and a service. Such opponents of surrogacy argue that transferring the duties of parenthood from the birthing mother to a contracting
383:
found that
Whitehead was the child's legal mother and declared contracts for gestational carrierhood illegal and invalid. However, the court found it in the best interest of the infant to award custody of Melissa to the child's biological father, William Stern, and his wife Elizabeth Stern, rather
201:
In most countries, such as China, there exists a huge gap in the legal framework between the legislation and regulation for surrogacy. Due to insufficient authority supervision, surrogacy and the safety of surrogate mothers lack of professional support or reliable operation, the medical conditions
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Some choose to inseminate privately without the intervention of a doctor or physician. In some jurisdictions, the intended parents using donor sperm need to go through an adoption process to have legal parental rights of the resulting child. Many fertility centres that provide for surrogacy assist
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Other human rights activists express concern over the conditions under which gestational carriers are kept by surrogacy clinics which exercise much power and control over the process of surrogate pregnancy. Isolated from friends and family and required to live in separate surrogacy hostels on the
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Anthropological studies of surrogates have shown that surrogates engage in various distancing techniques throughout the surrogate pregnancy so as to ensure that they do not become emotionally attached to the baby. Many surrogates intentionally try to foster the development of emotional attachment
234:
Opting for surrogacy is a choice for single men desiring to raise a child from infancy, same sex couples unable or unwilling for pregnancy, or women unable or unwilling to carry children on their own. Surrogacy is chosen by women for a number of medical reasons, such as abnormal or absent uterus,
535:
The citizenship and legal status of the children resulting from surrogacy arrangements can be problematic. The Hague
Conference Permanent Bureau identified the question of citizenship of these children as a "pressing problem" in the Permanent Bureau 2014 Study (Hague Conference Permanent Bureau,
522:
Jurisdictions that permit surrogacy sometimes offer a way for the intended mother, especially if she is also the genetic mother, to be recognized as the legal mother without going through the process of abandonment and adoption. Often this is via a birth order in which a court rules on the legal
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on the part of fathers than their natural conception counterparts; there were no differences in child development between these two groups. At age seven, the surrogacy and egg donation families showed less positive motherâchild interaction than the natural conception families, but there were no
173:
Children born through singleton IVF surrogacy have been shown to have no physical or mental abnormalities compared to those children born through natural conception. However, children born through multiple gestation in gestational carriers often result in preterm labor and delivery, resulting in
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Due to such blurry legal issues, surrogate mothers have become an underprivileged group facing the oppression of women's reproductive rights and the lack of formal legal restrictions. Many of the conditions they should have, such as emotional caring and social resources, are absent, as research
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According to the
Assisted Human Reproduction Act adopted in 2004, it is prohibited in Canada to compensate a female for acting as a surrogate mother or to advertise the payment of such compensation. However, on October 1, 2016, Health Canada announced its intention to update and strengthen the
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The relevance of a woman's consent in judging the ethical acceptability of surrogacy is another point of controversy within human rights circles. While some hold that any consensual process is not a human rights violation, other human rights activists argue that human rights are not just about
507:
Even in jurisdictions that do not recognize surrogacy arrangements, if the potential adoptive parents and the birth mother proceed without any intervention from the government and do not change their mind along the way, they will likely be able to achieve the effects of surrogacy by having the
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A study has followed a cohort of 32 surrogacy, 32 egg donation, and 54 natural conception families through to age seven, reporting the impact of surrogacy on the families and children at ages one, two, and seven. At age one, parents through surrogacy showed greater psychological well-being and
437:
and issues with relinquishing the child to their intended parents. Immediate postpartum depression has been observed in gestational surrogates at a rate of 0-20%. Some surrogates report negative feelings with relinquishing rights to the child immediately after birth, but most negative feelings
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claiming that surrogacy contracts usually blindly meet client needs while ignoring the health and well-being of the surrogate mothers. They are marginalized by society and lack the companionship of their partners and legitimate medical health checkups during the nearly one year of pregnancy.
552:
Particularly in China, surrogacy operates within a legally gray area. Scholars mostly claim that surrogacy incites social instability both for the
Chinese Government and the public, such as civil disputes, gender disproportion, crime, and the spread of disease. However, no law legislation or
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The legality of surrogacy varies around the world. Many countries do not have laws which specifically deal with surrogacy. Some countries ban surrogacy outright, while others ban commercial surrogacy but allow altruistic surrogacy (in which the surrogate is not financially compensated). Some
226:; approximately weeks. Preterm birth rate was higher for surrogate twin pregnancies compared to single births. There are fewer babies with low birth weight when born through surrogacy compared to those born through in vitro fertilization but both methods have similar rates of birth defects.
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that surrogacy places the childbearing surrogate in a position of subservience, in which her body becomes a "tool" for another. Simultaneously, other Buddhist thinkers argue that as long as the primary purpose of being a gestational carrier is out of compassion instead of profit, it is not
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have also argued that surrogacy is an assault to a woman's dignity and right to autonomy over her body. By degrading impoverished women to the mere status of "baby producers", commercial surrogacy has been accused by feminists of commodifying women's bodies in a manner akin to
483:
surrogacy to Thai couples. In 2016, Cambodia also banned commercial surrogacy. Nepal, Mexico, and India have also recently banned foreign commercial surrogacy. Surrogacy is legal and common in Iran, and monetary remuneration is practiced and allowed by religious authorities.
503:
The historical legal assumption has been that the woman giving birth to a child is that child's legal mother, and the only way for another woman to be recognized as the mother is through adoption (usually requiring the birth mother's formal abandonment of parental rights).
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generally view it as a morally permissible way for Jewish women who cannot conceive to fulfill their religious obligations of procreation. Rabbis who favour this stance often cite Genesis 9:1 which commands all Jews to "be fruitful and multiply". In 1988, the
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in certain countries with large fertility tourism industries. Several Jewish scholars and rabbis also cite ethical concerns surrounding the "broken relationship" between the child and its surrogate birth mother. Rabbi Immanuel Jacovits, chief rabbi of the
959:
states that if a Jewish woman is the surrogate, then the child is Jewish. However, this often raises issues when the child is raised by a non-Jewish family and approaches for addressing this issue are also widely debated within the Jewish community.
99:. Using the sperm of a donor results in a child who is not genetically related to the intended parent(s). If the intended father's sperm is used in the insemination, the resulting child is genetically related to both him and the surrogate.
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in the Hindu tradition and consequently treated as a pathology to be treated. This has led to general acceptance of medical intervention for addressing infertility amongst Hindus. As such, surrogacy and other scientific methods of
58:
In surrogacy arrangements, monetary compensation may or may not be involved. Receiving money for the arrangement is known as commercial surrogacy. The legality and cost of surrogacy varies widely between jurisdictions, contributing to
79:
Surrogacy may be either traditional or gestational, which are differentiated by the genetic origin of the egg. Gestational surrogacy tends to be more common than traditional surrogacy and is considered less legally complex.
614:
Supporters of surrogacy have argued to mandate education of gestational carriers regarding their rights and risks through the process in order to both rectify the ethical issues that arise and to enhance their autonomy.
2452:
Golombok, Susan; MacCallum, Fiona; Murray, Clare; Lycett, Emma; Jadva, Vasanti (February 2006). "Surrogacy families: parental functioning, parent-child relationships and children's psychological development at age 2".
655:). There is also an ancient Chinese saying that believes that "the body, hair, and skin come from the parents who gave birth to one", and blood relatives should be respected, and one should not harm oneself at will (
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221:
rate in surrogacy is marginally lower than babies born from standard IVF (11.5% vs 14%). Babies born from surrogacy also have similar average gestational age as infants born through in vitro fertilization and
823:, despite often serving as surrogates for Western commissioning couples. When surrogacy is practiced by Hindus, it is more likely to be used within the family circle as opposed to involving anonymous donors.
569:
Numerous ethical questions have been raised with regards to surrogacy. They generally stem from concerns relating to social justice, women's rights, child welfare, bioethics, and societal traditional values.
63:, and sometimes resulting in problematic international or interstate surrogacy arrangements. For example, those living in a country where surrogacy is banned travel to a jurisdiction that permits it. In some
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Ramskold, Louise Anna Helena; Posner, Marcus Paul (2013). "Commercial surrogacy: how provisions of monetary remuneration and powers of international law can prevent exploitation of gestational surrogates".
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Some countries, such as the United States, Canada, Greece, Georgia and Mexico are popular surrogacy destinations for foreign intended parents. Ukraine, Belarus and Russia were also destinations before the
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adaptation to parenthood than those who conceived naturally; there were no differences in infant temperament. At age two, parents through surrogacy showed more positive motherâchild relationships and less
450:
Gay men who have become fathers using surrogacy have reported similar experiences to those of other couples who have used surrogacy, including their relationship with both their child and their surrogate.
947:
and the gestational carrier. While most contend that parenthood is determined by the woman giving birth, a minority opt to consider the genetic parents the legal parents, citing the well-known passage in
701:
treatments or surrogacy are immoral. This stance is further supported by the common conception that serving as a gestational carrier is an expression of compassion and therefore automatically aligns with
411:
that restricts surrogacy to Mexican married couples is unconstitutional. It also ruled that legal parentage should be based on the presence of procreational will, not genetic or gestational relationship.
2041:"Surrogate Confesses Her Secret: Trial: Anna L. Johnson admits cashing check from unborn child's parents after she'd decided to seek custody. She denies telling The Times she didn't feel bonded to baby"
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expressions of domination as numerous reports have been cited of women in developing countries coerced into commercial surrogacy by their husbands wanting to "earn money off of their wives' bodies".
651:
Traditional Chinese values focus on blood ties and family ties. The physical connection between parents and children and the process by which parents give birth to children are considered virtuous (
407:
ruled that every individual, regardless of sexual orientation, marital status, or nationality, has the right to access assisted reproductive technology to form a family, and that the Civil Code of
511:
If the jurisdiction specifically bans surrogacy, however, and authorities find out about the arrangement, there may be financial and legal consequences for the parties involved. One jurisdiction (
430:
by the couple. Some gestational surrogates report emotional distress during the process of surrogacy. There may be a lack of access to therapy and emotional support through the surrogate process.
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that "to use another person as an incubator and then take from her the child that she carried and delivered for a fee is a revolting degradation of maternity and an affront to human dignity."
379:," was born in the U.S. The surrogate and biological mother, Mary Beth Whitehead, refused to give up custody of Melissa to the couple with whom she made the surrogacy agreement. The courts of
4071:
397:), and the court upheld their parental rights. In doing so, it legally defined the true mother as the woman who, according to the surrogacy agreement, intends to create and raise a child.
544:
In South Korea, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, and India, surrogacies are all regulated âthrough national laws that expressly ban it or explicitly set the parameters for its legalityâ.
306:
Having another woman bear a child for a couple to raise, usually with the male half of the couple as the genetic father, has been referenced since the ancient times. Babylonian law and
936:
4426:
787:. Surrogacy and other scientific methods of assisted reproduction are generally supported within the Hindu community. While Hindu scholars have not debated the issue extensively,
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beings, including human beings, is not a righteous practice as it almost always involves exploitation that causes suffering. Susumu Shimazono, professor of Religious Studies at the
681:
284:
3672:
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Golombok, S.; Murray, C.; Jadva, V.; MacCallum, F.; Lycett, E. (May 2004). "Families created through surrogacy arrangements: parent-child relationships in the 1st year of life".
261:
835:)" denies the distinction between genetic and gestational mothers, hence complicating notions of lineage within the context of surrogacy, which are central to the Muslim faith.
771:. Catholics also condemn in vitro fertilisation due to the killing of embryos that accompanies the frequent practice of discarding, freezing, or donating non-implanted eggs to
475:
countries allow commercial surrogacy, with few restrictions. Some jurisdictions extend a ban on surrogacy to international surrogacy. In some jurisdictions rules applicable to
553:
enforcement has been published against surrogacy, whether it is a surrogate mother or a connecting third agency, despite the state government's attitude to ban such practice.
4043:
88:
A traditional surrogacy (also known as partial, natural, or straight surrogacy) is one where the surrogate's egg is fertilised by the intended father's or a donor's sperm.
490:
Enforceability of surrogacy agreements. In some jurisdictions, they are void or prohibited, and some jurisdictions distinguish between commercial and altruistic surrogacy.
2770:
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thought is inconclusive on the matter of surrogacy. The prominent belief is that Buddhism totally accepts surrogacy since there are no Buddhist teachings suggesting that
4452:
709:
However, numerous Buddhist thinkers have expressed concerns with certain aspects of surrogacy. One Buddhist perspective on surrogacy arises from the Buddhist belief in
2029:
Levine, Judith, "Whose Baby is It? Surrogate Motherhood on Trial, Village Voice, Nov. 25, 1986; Levine, Judith, "Motherhood is Powerless," Village Voice, Apr. 14 1987.
190:. This is possibly because gestational carriers tend to be healthier and more fertile than women who use oocyte donation. Gestational carriers also have low rates of
791:, an Indian reproductive biologist, argues that there is no conflict between Hinduism and assisted reproduction. Others have supported this stance with reference to
2005:
1356:
4064:
3728:
1754:
Söderström-Anttila, Viveca; Wennerholm, Ulla-Britt; Loft, Anne; Pinborg, Anja; AittomÀki, Kristiina; Romundstad, Liv Bente; Bergh, Christina (October 9, 2015).
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Bergh, Christina; Romundstad, Liv Bente; AittomÀki, Kristiina; Pinborg, Anja; Loft, Anne; Wennerholm, Ulla-Britt; Söderström-Anttila, Viveca (March 1, 2016).
1940:
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Bergh, Christina; Romundstad, Liv Bente; AittomÀki, Kristiina; Pinborg, Anja; Loft, Anne; Wennerholm, Ulla-Britt; Söderström-Anttila, Viveca (March 1, 2016).
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differences in maternal positive or negative attitudes or child adjustment. The researchers concluded that the surrogacy families continued to function well.
5128:
1704:"Assisted reproduction involving gestational surrogacy: an analysis of the medical, psychosocial and legal issues: experience from a large surrogacy program"
1646:
Patel, Nayana Hitesh; Jadeja, Yuvraj Digvijaysingh; Bhadarka, Harsha Karsan; Patel, Molina Niket; Patel, Niket Hitesh; Sodagar, Nilofar Rahematkhan (2018).
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Söderström-Anttila, Viveca; Wennerholm, Ulla-Britt; Loft, Anne; Pinborg, Anja; AittomÀki, Kristiina; Romundstad, Liv Bente; Bergh, Christina (March 2016).
2726:"The private international law issues surrounding the status of children, including issues arising from international surrogacy arrangements â 2011â2013"
265:
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to one another. Jurisdictions that provide for pre-birth orders are also more likely to provide for some kind of enforcement of surrogacy contracts.
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1433:
Simopoulou, M.; Sfakianoudis, K.; Tsioulou, P.; Rapani, A.; Anifandis, G.; Pantou, A.; Bolaris, S.; Bakas, P.; Deligeoroglou, E. (July 17, 2018).
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404:
391:, gestational carrier Anna Johnson refused to give up the baby to intended parents Mark and Crispina Calvert. The couple sued her for custody (
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desire to help a childless couple. Other less commonly given reasons include enjoying the experience of pregnancy, and financial compensation.
1317:"The long-term experiences of surrogates: relationships and contact with surrogacy families in genetic and gestational surrogacy arrangements"
775:. As such, the Catholic Church deems all practices involving in vitro fertilisation, including gestational surrogacy, as morally problematic.
2805:
1924:
915:
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exploitative and is therefore morally permissible. This further highlights the lack of consensus on surrogacy within the Buddhist community.
3973:
717:. According to this view, gestational carrierhood circumvents the workings of karma by interfering with the natural cycle of reincarnation.
2725:
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Different religions take different approaches to surrogacy, often related to their stances on assisted reproductive technology in general.
592:
43:
on behalf of another person(s) who will become the child's parent(s) after birth. People pursue surrogacy for a variety of reasons such as
2648:
1977:
4485:
4244:
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Mechanisms for the legal recognition of the intended parents as the legal parents, either by pre-birth orders or by post-birth adoption.
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2009 – Ukraine, one of the most requested countries in Europe for this treatment, has its first Surrogacy Law approved.
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2417:
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involved in gestational surrogacy is generally viewed as morally impermissible due to its removal of human conception from the act of
5255:
4254:
3831:
1079:
183:
3528:
3459:"Parental disclosure of assisted reproductive technology (ART) conception to their children: a systematic and meta-analytic review"
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4234:
4209:
4080:
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are generally supported within the Hindu community. Nonetheless, Hindu women do not commonly use surrogacy as an option to treat
816:
759:
636:
2708:
1702:
Dar, S.; Lazer, T.; Swanson, S.; Silverman, J.; Wasser, C.; Moskovtsev, S. I.; Sojecki, A.; Librach, C. L. (December 17, 2014).
5113:
4959:
4305:
3959:
2220:
Ciccarelli, Janice; Beckman, Linda (March 2005). "Navigating Rough Waters: An Overview of Psychological Aspects of Surrogacy".
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3352:
3191:
van Zyl, Liezl; Walker, Ruth (September 1, 2015). "Surrogacy, Compensation, and Legal Parentage: Against the Adoption Model".
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which states that life begins at conception. Also controversial is the issue of defining Judaism in the context of surrogacy.
5270:
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2688:
2131:
2086:
341:
210:
Among gestational surrogacy arrangements, between 19â33% of gestational surrogates will successfully become pregnant from an
3165:
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have embryos left over, which they donate to others. The resulting child is genetically unrelated to the intended parent(s).
2785:
2360:"Gay father surrogacy families: relationships with surrogates and egg donors and parental disclosure of children's origins"
2358:
Golombok, Susan; Ehrhardt, Anke A.; Raffanello, Elizabeth; Slutsky, Jenna; Carone, Nicola; Blake, Lucy (November 1, 2016).
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scholars have not debated the issue of surrogacy extensively. Nonetheless, the practice of surrogacy is referenced in the
317:
Many developments in medicine, social customs, and legal proceedings around the world paved the way for modern surrogacy:
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4911:
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4183:
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1100:
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4856:
976:
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111:
Gestational surrogacy (also known as host or full surrogacy) was first achieved in April 1986. It takes place when an
5133:
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is opposed to surrogacy, which it views as immoral and incompatible with Biblical texts surrounding topics of birth,
2058:
214:. Of these cases, 30â70% will successfully allow the intended parent(s) to become parent(s) of the resulting child.
5055:
4886:
4881:
2084:
Teman, E. (March 2003). "The medicalization of "nature" in the "artificial body": surrogate motherhood in Israel".
847:
Harinegameshin Transfers Mahavira's Embryo, from a Kalpasutra manuscript, c. 1300â1350, Philadelphia Museum of Art
843:
831:
For Muslims, the Qur'anic injunction that "their mothers are only those who conceived them and gave birth to them (
426:
between the intended mother and the surrogate child. Some surrogates describe feeling empowered by the experience.
273:
20:
5265:
5224:
5060:
4780:
4612:
2498:"Families created through surrogacy: Motherâchild relationships and children's psychological adjustment at age 7"
2147:"Psychological trait and state characteristics, social support and attitudes to the surrogate pregnancy and baby"
1233:
1069:
1034:
469:
64:
5331:
5311:
4632:
2222:
1129:
Piersanti, Valeria; Consalvo, Francesca; Signore, Fabrizio; Del Rio, Alessandro; Zaami, Simona (January 2021).
1074:
2767:"Important Information for U.S. Citizens Considering the Use of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Abroad"
2309:
Ahmari Tehran, Hoda; Tashi, Shohreh; Mehran, Nahid; Eskandari, Narges; Dadkhah Tehrani, Tahmineh (July 2014).
291:
should be respected throughout the pregnancy even if her wishes conflict with what the intended parents want.
126:
surrogacy has several forms, and in each form, the resulting child is genetically unrelated to the surrogate:
3934:
515:) prevented the genetic mother's adoption of the child even though that left the child with no legal mother.
5088:
4478:
4300:
4295:
4280:
4126:
3689:
2605:
Aramesh, K (May 2009). "Iran's experience with surrogate motherhood: an Islamic view and ethical concerns".
1435:"Risks in Surrogacy Considering the Embryo: From the Preimplantation to the Gestational and Neonatal Period"
1024:
918:
associated with the Conservative Jewish movement issued formal approval for surrogacy, concluding that "the
628:
627:
in the context of surrogacy reference issues related to identity and parenthood, abandonment and abuse, and
96:
4921:
4760:
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4365:
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4204:
4193:
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764:
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1976 – Michigan lawyer Noel Keane wrote the first surrogacy contract in the United States.
356:
337:
148:
116:
3846:
1131:"Surrogacy and "Procreative Tourism". What Does the Future Hold from the Ethical and Legal Perspectives?"
243:
due to complications in childbirth such as heavy bleeding or a ruptured uterus. Medical diseases such as
5250:
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4735:
4662:
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772:
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compromised by the insertion of a third party into the marriage contract. Additionally, the practice of
508:
gestational carrier give birth and then give the child up for private adoption to the intended parents.
434:
393:
4004:"Birthing a Mother: The Surrogate Body and the Pregnant Self". Berkeley: University of California Press
2831:
236:
2262:"Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting families â a systematic review"
1756:"Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting families â a systematic review"
28:
5108:
5035:
4984:
4745:
4720:
4710:
4322:
4214:
4136:
3729:"Why the Church Opposes Surrogate Motherhood and attempts to legalize it in The District of Columbia"
3421:
948:
639:
to the child has also been argued to be important for both health risks and the rights of the child.
624:
369:, the first "test-tube baby", was born in England, the product of the first successful IVF procedure.
147:
A donor embryo is transferred to a surrogate. Such an embryo may be available when others undergoing
92:
2207:
1599:"Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting familiesâa systematic review"
1497:"Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting families-a systematic review"
1004:
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4502:
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4149:
4144:
2359:
1973:
729:
195:
1858:
Golombok, Susan; MacCallum, Fiona; Lycett, Emma; Murray, Clare; Jadva, Vasanti (October 1, 2003).
855:
5326:
5306:
5169:
4906:
4642:
4471:
4360:
4327:
4096:
4016:
3457:
Morsan, Valentina; Gronchi, Giorgio; Zanchettin, Liviana; Tallandini, Maria Anna (June 1, 2016).
3390:
3284:
3268:
3224:
2630:
2186:
1982:
792:
768:
500:
Although laws differ widely from one jurisdiction to another, some generalizations are possible:
372:
1985â1986 – A woman carried the first successful gestational surrogate pregnancy.
276:
where she successfully had at least one child, and has had no more than five deliveries or three
2729:
4011:
3903:
2830:
Qi, Qing; Gu, Xiaolei; Zhao, Yangyang; Chen, Ziqin; Zhou, Jing; Chen, Song; Wang, Ling (2023).
5260:
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3048:
3030:
2945:
2927:
2879:
2853:
2801:
2622:
2527:
2496:
Golombok Susan; Readings Jennifer; Blake Lucy; Casey Polly; Marks Alex; Jadva Vasanti (2011).
2478:
2470:
2434:
2397:
2379:
2340:
2322:
2291:
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2168:
2103:
1920:
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60:
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796:
456:
191:
3638:
3133:
2006:"And Baby Makes Four: for the First Time a Surrogate Bears a Child Genetically Not Her Own"
1357:"And Baby Makes Four: for the First Time a Surrogate Bears a Child Genetically Not Her Own"
5174:
5093:
4930:
4891:
4790:
4540:
4416:
4375:
4219:
3753:
Kumar, TC Anand (2007). "Ethical aspects of assisted reproduction â an Indian viewpoint".
2712:
1260:
Bhatia, Kalsang; Martindale, Elizabeth A.; Rustamov, Oybek; Nysenbaum, Anthony M. (2009).
1044:
996:
751:
703:
310:
allowed this practice, and a woman unable to give birth could use the practice to avoid a
244:
211:
48:
3868:
925:
Jewish scholars and rabbis which hold an anti-surrogacy stance often see it as a form of
170:
gestations occur, both the surrogate and the embryos face higher risks of complications.
3425:
906:
have long debated this topic, expressing conflicting views on both sides of the debate.
5234:
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1434:
1210:
1189:
1165:
1130:
1064:
721:
130:
The embryo is created using the intended father's sperm and the intended mother's eggs;
19:
This article is about a type of pregnancy. For other uses of the word "surrogacy", see
3766:
122:(IVF) technology is implanted in a surrogate, sometimes called a gestational carrier.
5300:
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2125:
1836:
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710:
584:
218:
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366:
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240:
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187:
165:
The embryo implanted in gestational surrogacy faces the same risks as anyone using
39:
is an arrangement, often supported by a legal agreement, whereby a woman agrees to
3256:
1820:
16:
Arrangement in which a woman carries and delivers a child for designated parent(s)
2546:
268:, a gestational carrier is preferably between the ages of 21 and 45, has had one
5189:
5164:
5010:
4846:
4831:
4617:
4545:
4535:
4088:
2797:
1054:
820:
698:
326:
44:
2974:"Surrogacy laws: why a global approach is needed to stop exploitation of women"
2568:
2430:
1569:
1552:
1333:
1316:
1278:
1261:
648:
most fundamental reasons for peopleâs resistance to surrogacy in social norms.
5204:
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4677:
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4176:
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1301:
986:
886:
non-implanted embryos, destruction of traditional marriage relationships, and
875:
608:
388:
380:
295:
40:
3494:
3443:
3434:
3409:
3378:
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3212:
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3034:
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1729:
1666:
1624:
1578:
1522:
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1408:
1287:
1156:
1147:
248:
and same-sex couples having a baby also may indicate surrogacy as an option.
4895:
4866:
4841:
4725:
4494:
4154:
3475:
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2618:
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1513:
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1382:
1049:
1029:
879:
871:
725:
294:
The most commonly reported motivation given by gestational surrogates is an
269:
123:
32:
Intended parents attend the birth of their child by a gestational surrogate.
3502:
3386:
3337:
3280:
3220:
3112:
3052:
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2857:
2848:
2626:
2531:
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2401:
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2107:
1893:
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1737:
1685:
1632:
1530:
1478:
1451:
1416:
1342:
1219:
1201:
1174:
2587:
5184:
5118:
4525:
4395:
3319:
1019:
887:
867:
859:
784:
755:
694:
599:
476:
330:
288:
3485:
3272:
3079:"Surrogacy and women's right to health in India: issues and perspective"
1553:"Protection of rights and legal remedies for surrogate mothers in China"
607:. Some feminists also express concerns over links between surrogacy and
4821:
4785:
3876:
National Seminar on Engaging Jainism on Modern Issues, Ladnun, Feb 2017
956:
930:
groups regarding the relation between surrogacy practices and forms of
919:
910:
863:
851:
408:
311:
144:
The embryo is created using the intended mother's egg and donor sperm;
5045:
4964:
4560:
4520:
4515:
4510:
2513:
952:
512:
493:
The different issues raised by traditional and gestational surrogacy.
376:
349:
112:
355:
1953 – Researchers successfully performed the first
1941:"Carrying a child for someone else should be celebrated â and paid"
2745:"RePub, Erasmus University Repository: Global surrogacy practices"
2455:
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
1238:
903:
842:
811:
803:
714:
134:
27:
4025:"Chinese Couples Come to U.S. to Have Children Through Surrogacy"
3304:"Surrogacy, privacy, and the American Convention on Human Rights"
2311:"Emotional experiences in surrogate mothers: A qualitative study"
557:
year on average â operating underground with legal prohibitions.
4652:
4046:, Better Health Channel, State Government of Victoria, Australia
3690:"The Daily Enlightenment » Is Surrogacy Right In Buddhism?"
2744:
899:
345:
4467:
4053:
922:
of parenthood is so great that ovum surrogacy is permissible".
447:
reproductive technology or those children conceived naturally.
4926:
3077:
Anu; Kumar, Pawan; Inder, Deep; Sharma, Nandini (April 2013).
166:
138:
4463:
3684:
3682:
1911:
Early Mesopotamia Society and Economy at the Dawn of History
217:
For surrogate pregnancies where only one child is born, the
2872:"The dangers of carrying a child for someone else in China"
2127:
Birthing a Mother: The Surrogate Body and the Pregnant Self
1978:"Noel Keane, 58, Lawyer in Surrogate Mother Cases, Is Dead"
858:
tradition of Jainism according to which the embryo of Lord
3974:"How Canada became an international surrogacy destination"
375:
1986 – Melissa Stern, otherwise known as "
799:
which suggests the practice of gestational carrier-hood:
91:
Insemination of the surrogate can be either through sex (
1262:"Surrogate pregnancy: an essential guide for clinicians"
3639:"Buddhist Ethics and Surrogacy Problem of Thai Society"
2547:"The corner of Europe where women rent out their wombs"
1648:"Insight into different aspects of surrogacy practices"
182:
Gestational surrogates have a smaller chance of having
2649:"Infertile Couples in Iran Find New Hope in Surrogacy"
2059:"Is Surrogacy in Mexico Legal? A Detailed Explanation"
1188:
BrandĂŁo, Pedro; Garrido, NicolĂĄs (December 29, 2022).
682:
Religious response to assisted reproductive technology
285:
International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics
3408:
Schurr, Carolin; Militz, Elisabeth (April 16, 2018).
3007:
Saxena, Pikee; Mishra, Archana; Malik, Sonia (2012).
2904:
Saxena, Pikee; Mishra, Archana; Malik, Sonia (2012).
2784:
Aguiling-Pangalangan, Elizabeth H. (March 12, 2024),
2743:
Beeson, Diane; Darnovsky, Marcy (December 31, 2014).
2119:
2117:
1302:"Surrogacy: what is it? Different types of surrogacy"
262:
European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology
3818:, Cambridge University Press, 2017, pp. 46â78,
3784:
3782:
3780:
3778:
3776:
3613:"Buddhist Beliefs About Surrogate Mothers | Synonym"
3529:"Vers une Loi sur la procréation assistée renforcée"
1825:
International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics
939:
from 1976 to 1991, reported in his 1975 publication
898:
In general, there is a lack of consensus within the
67:, surrogacy is legal if there is no financial gain.
5243:
5152:
5069:
4993:
4945:
4804:
4701:
4596:
4501:
4445:
4404:
4353:
4273:
4192:
4135:
4087:
3935:"What does Jewish Law Have to Say about Surrogacy?"
810:Additionally, infertility is often associated with
321:1936 – In the U.S., drug companies
3904:"Jewish ethics and surrogacy â Jewish Independent"
3814:"Religion, Culture and Religious Discrimination",
3557:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3410:"The affective economy of transnational surrogacy"
1908:
174:prematurity and physical and/or mental anomalies.
133:The embryo is created using the intended father's
4453:Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction
3671:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
2189:in: Rachel Cook and Shelley Day Schlater (eds.),
2187:scribd.com "Knowing the Surrogate Body in Israel"
1860:"Surrogacy: the experiences of surrogate mothers"
1234:"Using a Surrogate Mother: What You Need to Know"
479:apply while others do not regulate the practice.
3928:
3926:
3924:
3922:
3920:
2972:Barn, Gulzaar; Marway, Herjeet (July 30, 2018).
2191:Surrogate Motherhood: International Perspectives
902:on the matter of surrogacy. Jewish scholars and
51:, or when pregnancy is a medical impossibility.
3897:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3887:
3885:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3601:
3599:
724:directly who purportedly taught that trade in
4479:
4065:
3816:Religious Discrimination and Cultural Context
3414:Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space
2792:, Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 395â435,
2569:"Thai 'baby factory' saga reaches uneasy end"
2204:Surrogate Motherhood: Conception in the Heart
1557:Humanities and Social Sciences Communications
1315:Imrie, Susan; Jadva, Vasanti (July 4, 2014).
8:
3960:"Surrogacy: Parenthood as a global industry"
3869:"Some Bioethical Issues in Jain Perspective"
3847:"Harinegameshin Transfers Mahavira's Embryo"
3570:. Archived from the original on June 7, 2016
486:Laws dealing with surrogacy must deal with:
3351:Damelio, Jennifer; Sorensen, Kelly (2008).
384:than to Whitehead, the gestational carrier.
344:became the first person to fertilize human
4486:
4472:
4464:
4072:
4058:
4050:
2790:Research Handbook on Surrogacy and the Law
2562:
2560:
266:American Society for Reproductive Medicine
239:) or post-hysterectomy. Women may have a
3484:
3474:
3433:
3368:
3327:
3094:
3042:
3024:
2939:
2921:
2847:
2749:ISS Working Paper Series / General Series
2521:
2391:
2334:
2277:
2162:
1875:
1771:
1719:
1675:
1665:
1614:
1568:
1512:
1468:
1450:
1398:
1332:
1277:
1209:
1164:
1146:
909:Those supportive of surrogacy within the
433:Gestational surrogates may struggle with
329:started the pharmaceutical production of
260:According to recommendations made by the
4010:Siegel-Itzkovich, Judy (April 3, 2010).
2693:Canadian Fertility and Andrology Society
2315:Iranian Journal of Reproductive Medicine
1381:Brinsden, Peter R. (September 1, 2003).
3722:
3720:
3718:
3160:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2689:"Surrogacy in Quebec: First Legal Test"
2255:
2253:
2039:Gewertz, Catherine (October 11, 1990).
1749:
1747:
1092:
890:implications of gestational surrogacy.
314:, which would otherwise be inevitable.
237:MayerâRokitanskyâKusterâHauser syndrome
103:the parties through the legal process.
3664:
3581:
3353:"Enhancing Autonomy in Paid Surrogacy"
2825:
2823:
1697:
1695:
1653:Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1490:
1488:
1428:
1426:
184:hypertensive disorder during pregnancy
3933:Golinkin, David (December 18, 2012).
3862:
3860:
3522:
3520:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3512:
3009:"Surrogacy: Ethical and Legal Issues"
2906:"Surrogacy: Ethical and Legal Issues"
2588:"'I gave birth but it's not my baby'"
2586:Perasso, Valeria (December 4, 2018).
1592:
1590:
1588:
916:Committee on Jewish Law and Standards
874:ruler Siddharth, by a divinity named
783:Surrogacy does not conflict with the
657:"èș«äœćè€ćäčç¶æŻ shÄntÇ fĂ fĆ« shĂČu zhÄ« fĂčmÇ"
643:Traditional Values in Chinese Society
7:
3727:Pope, Msgr Charles (June 19, 2013).
3138:The Center for Bioethics and Culture
3013:Indian Journal of Community Medicine
2910:Indian Journal of Community Medicine
2567:Head, Jonathan (February 26, 2018).
2545:Ponniah, Kevin (February 13, 2018).
1266:The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist
1124:
1122:
593:Inter-American Court of Human Rights
3712:. Catechism of the Catholic Church.
3643:Soshum: Jurnal Sosial dan Humaniora
3637:Damnoen, Somchai (August 4, 2017).
1190:"Commercial Surrogacy: An Overview"
235:either congenitally (also known as
5286:Parents Against Child Exploitation
3308:Journal of Law and the Biosciences
2832:"The status of surrogacy in China"
2769:. travel.state.gov. Archived from
2704:Bognar, Tara (November 28, 2011).
2193:. London: Hart Press. pp. 261â280.
758:, and life. Paragraph 2376 of the
14:
5256:Mothers Apart from Their Children
4255:Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
3902:Spikebrennan (January 20, 2017).
2145:Van den Akker; Olga B.A. (2007).
1196:. 44(12) (1141â1158): 1141â1158.
1080:Mitochondrial replacement therapy
878:. This account is not present in
4235:Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
4210:Autologous endometrial coculture
4081:Assisted reproductive technology
3867:Kachhara, N.L. (February 2017).
3790:"Hinduism's View on Infertility"
3370:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2008.00629.x
3302:Hevia, MartĂn (August 1, 2018).
2467:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01453.x
2376:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.08.013
2236:10.1111/j.0022-4537.2005.00392.x
1962:. New York: Infobase Publishing.
1960:Adoption and Surrogate Pregnancy
1003:
989:
866:woman Devananada to the womb of
287:recommends that the surrogate's
186:compared to mothers pregnant by
5114:Management of domestic violence
4960:Corporal punishment in the home
3755:Reproductive BioMedicine Online
3653:(inactive September 12, 2024).
3564:"Surrogacy and Hindu mythology"
3527:Canada, Santé (July 12, 2017).
3166:"Surrogacy: Erasing the Mother"
3083:Indian Journal of Public Health
2663:"Guide to State Surrogacy Laws"
2004:Johnson, Bonnie (May 4, 1987).
1551:Zhao, Yue (November 15, 2023).
1321:Reproductive BioMedicine Online
637:assisted reproductive technique
583:pretext of ensuring consistent
5271:National Fatherhood Initiative
4318:Gamete intrafallopian transfer
4265:Zygote intrafallopian transfer
4023:Li, Shan (February 18, 2012).
2715:. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
2132:University of California Press
2087:Medical Anthropology Quarterly
595:reproductive rights landmark.
1:
5276:National Parents Organization
5001:Adverse childhood experiences
4422:Genetic diagnosis of intersex
4250:Partner-assisted reproduction
3767:10.1016/S1472-6483(10)60748-1
3257:10.1136/medethics-2012-100527
3193:Journal of Bioethical Inquiry
1439:BioMed Research International
5041:Effects of domestic violence
4683:Social emotional development
2667:Center for American Progress
1837:10.1016/0020-7292(96)02660-4
779:Hinduism, The Santana Dharma
4857:Identification (psychology)
4260:Transvaginal ovum retrieval
4001:Teman, Elly (March, 2010).
2798:10.4337/9781802207651.00029
2706:"Birth Orders: An Overview"
1821:"FIGO Committee guidelines"
977:Russian invasion of Ukraine
795:, including a story in the
732:, contends in the magazine
403:2021 – The
5348:
5281:Parentâteacher association
5056:Parental abuse by children
4937:Positive Parenting Program
4887:Parent management training
4882:Normative social influence
3851:Philadelphia Museum of Art
3562:keyadutta (June 6, 2016).
2728:. hcch.net. Archived from
2431:10.1037/0012-1649.40.3.400
1570:10.1057/s41599-023-02370-x
1334:10.1016/j.rbmo.2014.06.004
1279:10.1576/toag.11.1.49.27468
967:
937:United Hebrew Congregation
679:
467:
387:1990 – In
18:
5266:National Childbirth Trust
5061:Stress in early childhood
4781:Taking children seriously
4613:Applied behavior analysis
4427:Religious response to ART
3824:10.1017/9781108394871.003
3651:10.31940/soshum.v9i1.1267
3588:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
3245:Journal of Medical Ethics
3205:10.1007/s11673-015-9646-4
2607:Journal of Medical Ethics
2266:Human Reproduction Update
1760:Human Reproduction Update
1603:Human Reproduction Update
1501:Human Reproduction Update
1387:Human Reproduction Update
1070:Surrogacy laws by country
1035:Commercial animal cloning
623:Those concerned with the
470:Surrogacy laws by country
438:resolve after some time.
357:cryopreservation of sperm
230:Indications for surrogacy
47:, dangers or undesirable
4922:The talk (sex education)
4633:Developmental psychology
4245:Ovarian hyperstimulation
3939:The Schechter Institutes
3435:10.1177/0308518x18769652
3096:10.4103/0019-557X.114984
3026:10.4103/0970-0218.103466
2923:10.4103/0970-0218.103466
2502:Developmental Psychology
2418:Developmental Psychology
2223:Journal of Social Issues
2100:10.1525/maq.2003.17.1.78
1667:10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_138_17
1148:10.3390/medicina57010047
1075:Third-party reproduction
5129:Parental responsibility
5089:Cost of raising a child
4281:Artificial insemination
4127:Male infertility crisis
2711:April 23, 2012, at the
2619:10.1136/jme.2008.027763
2364:Fertility and Sterility
2202:Ragone, Helena (1994).
1907:Postgate, J.N. (1992).
1383:"Gestational surrogacy"
1194:Rev Bras Ginecol Obstet
1025:Artificial insemination
862:was transferred from a
405:Supreme Court of Mexico
365:1978 –
336:1944 –
274:uncomplicated pregnancy
97:artificial insemination
4432:Mitochondrial donation
4366:Donor Sibling Registry
4205:Assisted zona hatching
4194:In vitro fertilisation
2849:10.5582/bst.2022.01263
1958:Merino, Faith (2010).
1202:10.1055/s-0042-1759774
1011:Human sexuality portal
848:
808:
765:in vitro fertilisation
713:as a manifestation of
416:Psychological concerns
338:Harvard Medical School
33:
5251:Families Need Fathers
4812:After-school activity
4736:Concerted cultivation
4731:Buddha-like parenting
4663:Nature versus nurture
4628:Cognitive development
3617:classroom.synonym.com
3476:10.1093/humrep/dew068
2773:on September 7, 2015.
2755:. repub.eur.nl: 1â54.
2687:Baudouin, Christine.
2279:10.1093/humupd/dmv046
2164:10.1093/humrep/dem155
1915:. Routledge. p.
1877:10.1093/humrep/deg397
1800:Global Star Surrogacy
1773:10.1093/humupd/dmv046
1721:10.1093/humrep/deu333
1616:10.1093/humupd/dmv046
1514:10.1093/humupd/dmv046
1400:10.1093/humupd/dmg033
1101:"surrogate pregnancy"
941:Jewish Medical Ethics
882:Jain texts, however.
846:
817:assisted reproduction
801:
720:Others reference the
435:postpartum depression
252:Gestational surrogacy
107:Gestational surrogacy
84:Traditional surrogacy
31:
5322:Gendered occupations
5109:Right to family life
5036:Dysfunctional family
4746:Free-range parenting
4721:Attachment parenting
4711:Achievement ideology
4323:Reproductive surgery
4215:Cytoplasmic transfer
4145:Estrogen antagonists
4137:Fertility medication
3761:(Suppl 1): 140â142.
3733:Community in Mission
2732:on November 4, 2013.
2124:Teman, Elly (2010).
1976:(January 28, 1997).
1974:Van Gelder, Lawrence
1831:(3): 297â302. 1996.
1452:10.1155/2018/6287507
409:the state of Tabasco
196:placental abruptions
93:natural insemination
49:factors of pregnancy
5124:Parental alienation
5051:Narcissistic parent
4975:Positive discipline
4796:Work at home parent
4776:Strict father model
4761:Nurturant parenting
4668:Parental investment
4503:Kinship terminology
4335:Selective reduction
4286:Ovulation induction
4230:In vitro maturation
4225:Gestational carrier
4150:aromatase inhibitor
3426:2018EnPlA..50.1626S
2786:"Surrogacy in Asia"
2669:. December 17, 2007
2185:Teman, Elly. 2003.
1796:"What is Surrogacy"
730:University of Tokyo
625:rights of the child
574:Gestational carrier
5170:T. Berry Brazelton
4907:Social integration
4643:Identity formation
4361:Donor registration
4328:Vasectomy reversal
4017:The Jerusalem Post
3978:The Globe and Mail
3463:Human Reproduction
3320:10.1093/jlb/lsy013
2151:Human Reproduction
2063:Surrogacy Miracles
1983:The New York Times
1864:Human Reproduction
1708:Human Reproduction
1107:. February 2, 2011
849:
773:stem cell research
769:sexual intercourse
394:Calvert v. Johnson
278:Caesarean sections
34:
5294:
5293:
5104:Family disruption
5026:Cinderella effect
5006:Child abandonment
4980:Tactical ignoring
4877:Moral development
4756:Helicopter parent
4751:Gatekeeper parent
4716:Atlas personality
4693:Social psychology
4638:Human development
4623:Child development
4608:Attachment theory
4461:
4460:
4412:Accidental incest
4122:Fertility tourism
4117:Fertility testing
4030:Los Angeles Times
3794:www.beliefnet.com
3172:. January 9, 2019
2836:BioScience Trends
2807:978-1-80220-765-1
2651:. April 25, 2017.
2045:Los Angeles Times
1926:978-0-415-11032-7
1870:(10): 2196â2204.
970:Fertility tourism
964:Fertility tourism
932:human trafficking
789:T. C. Anand Kumar
667:Financial aspects
629:child trafficking
442:Child and parents
323:Schering-Kahlbaum
178:Surrogate mothers
61:fertility tourism
5339:
5144:Shared parenting
4955:Blanket training
4947:Child discipline
4587:In loco parentis
4566:Shared parenting
4488:
4481:
4474:
4465:
4386:Semen collection
4291:Cryopreservation
4240:Oocyte selection
4112:Fertility clinic
4074:
4067:
4060:
4051:
3989:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3962:. April 3, 2023.
3956:
3950:
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3713:
3710:"Paragraph 2376"
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3507:
3506:
3488:
3478:
3469:(6): 1275â1287.
3454:
3448:
3447:
3437:
3420:(8): 1626â1645.
3405:
3399:
3398:
3372:
3348:
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3299:
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3098:
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3057:
3056:
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3028:
3004:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2978:The Conversation
2969:
2954:
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2943:
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2901:
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2894:
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2577:
2576:
2564:
2555:
2554:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2525:
2514:10.1037/a0025292
2508:(6): 1579â1588.
2493:
2487:
2486:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2395:
2370:(6): 1503â1509.
2355:
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2299:
2281:
2257:
2248:
2247:
2217:
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2200:
2194:
2183:
2177:
2176:
2166:
2157:(8): 2287â2295.
2142:
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2081:
2075:
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2055:
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1116:
1114:
1112:
1097:
1060:Sexual surrogate
1013:
1008:
1007:
999:
994:
993:
992:
900:Jewish community
797:Bhagavata Purana
676:Religious issues
457:parenting stress
5347:
5346:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5338:
5337:
5336:
5332:Human commodity
5312:Human pregnancy
5297:
5296:
5295:
5290:
5239:
5220:Matthew Sanders
5175:Rudolf Dreikurs
5148:
5134:Parents' rights
5094:Deadbeat parent
5071:
5065:
4989:
4941:
4917:The talk (race)
4800:
4791:Tiger parenting
4697:
4592:
4541:Extended family
4497:
4492:
4462:
4457:
4441:
4417:Fertility fraud
4400:
4349:
4269:
4220:Embryo transfer
4197:
4188:
4131:
4083:
4078:
4040:
3998:
3996:Further reading
3993:
3992:
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3573:
3571:
3568:herencyclopedia
3561:
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2778:
2765:
2764:
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2742:
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2724:
2723:
2719:
2713:Wayback Machine
2703:
2699:
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2057:
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2033:
2028:
2024:
2014:
2012:
2003:
2002:
1998:
1988:
1986:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1947:. May 13, 2017.
1939:
1938:
1934:
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1380:
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1355:
1354:
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1314:
1313:
1309:
1304:. VittoriaVita.
1300:
1299:
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1254:
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1227:
1187:
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1128:
1127:
1120:
1110:
1108:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1045:Embryo transfer
1009:
1002:
997:Medicine portal
995:
990:
988:
985:
972:
966:
911:Jewish religion
896:
870:, the queen of
841:
829:
781:
752:Catholic Church
748:
743:
704:Buddhist values
692:
684:
678:
669:
645:
621:
576:
567:
550:
542:
533:
472:
466:
444:
423:
418:
304:
254:
245:cervical cancer
232:
224:oocyte donation
212:embryo transfer
208:
192:placenta previa
188:oocyte donation
180:
163:
158:
109:
86:
77:
71:the surrogate.
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5345:
5343:
5335:
5334:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5299:
5298:
5292:
5291:
5289:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5261:Mothers' Union
5258:
5253:
5247:
5245:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5237:
5235:Benjamin Spock
5232:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5215:Penelope Leach
5212:
5210:Annette Lareau
5207:
5202:
5200:Alan E. Kazdin
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5160:Mary Ainsworth
5156:
5154:
5150:
5149:
5147:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5075:
5073:
5072:social aspects
5067:
5066:
5064:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
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4997:
4995:
4991:
4990:
4988:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
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4951:
4949:
4943:
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4909:
4904:
4899:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
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4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4837:Dishabituation
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4808:
4806:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4766:Slow parenting
4763:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4707:
4705:
4699:
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4695:
4690:
4685:
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4675:
4670:
4665:
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4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
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4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4604:
4602:
4597:Theories
4594:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4583:
4578:
4576:Blended family
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4556:Nuclear family
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4507:
4505:
4499:
4498:
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4468:
4459:
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4350:
4348:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4331:
4330:
4320:
4315:
4314:
4313:
4308:
4306:ovarian tissue
4303:
4298:
4288:
4283:
4277:
4275:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4201:
4199:
4198:and expansions
4190:
4189:
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4152:
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4085:
4084:
4079:
4077:
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4069:
4062:
4054:
4048:
4047:
4039:
4038:External links
4036:
4035:
4034:
4021:
4008:
3997:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3965:
3951:
3916:
3881:
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3806:
3772:
3745:
3714:
3702:
3678:
3629:
3595:
3545:
3508:
3449:
3400:
3363:(5): 269â277.
3343:
3314:(2): 375â397.
3294:
3251:(6): 397â402.
3234:
3199:(3): 383â387.
3183:
3150:
3118:
3058:
3019:(4): 211â213.
2990:
2955:
2916:(4): 211â213.
2896:
2863:
2842:(4): 302â309.
2819:
2806:
2776:
2758:
2735:
2717:
2697:
2680:
2654:
2640:
2613:(5): 320â322.
2597:
2578:
2556:
2537:
2488:
2461:(2): 213â222.
2444:
2425:(3): 400â411.
2407:
2350:
2321:(7): 471â480.
2301:
2272:(2): 260â276.
2249:
2212:
2208:Westview Books
2195:
2178:
2137:
2113:
2076:
2050:
2031:
2022:
1996:
1965:
1950:
1932:
1925:
1899:
1850:
1812:
1787:
1766:(2): 260â276.
1743:
1714:(2): 345â352.
1691:
1660:(3): 212â218.
1638:
1609:(2): 260â276.
1584:
1536:
1507:(2): 260â276.
1484:
1422:
1393:(5): 483â491.
1373:
1348:
1327:(4): 424â435.
1307:
1293:
1252:
1225:
1180:
1118:
1105:www.cancer.gov
1091:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1065:Sperm donation
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1000:
984:
981:
968:Main article:
965:
962:
927:modern slavery
895:
892:
876:Harinegameshin
840:
837:
828:
825:
785:Hindu religion
780:
777:
747:
744:
742:
739:
691:
688:
677:
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575:
572:
566:
565:Ethical issues
563:
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498:
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491:
468:Main article:
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5254:
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5249:
5248:
5246:
5244:Organizations
5242:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5230:B. F. Skinner
5228:
5226:
5225:William Sears
5223:
5221:
5218:
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5195:Thomas Gordon
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5097:
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5087:
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5084:Child support
5082:
5080:
5079:Child custody
5077:
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5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
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5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5021:Child neglect
5019:
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4852:Homeschooling
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4694:
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4688:Socialization
4686:
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4676:
4674:
4673:Paternal bond
4671:
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4658:Maternal bond
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4571:Single parent
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4557:
4554:
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4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
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4531:Alloparenting
4529:
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4504:
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4477:
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4466:
4454:
4451:
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4448:
4444:
4438:
4437:Sex selection
4435:
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4425:
4423:
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4410:
4409:
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4364:
4362:
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4346:
4343:
4341:
4340:Sex selection
4338:
4336:
4333:
4329:
4326:
4325:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4312:
4309:
4307:
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4299:
4297:
4294:
4293:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4274:Other methods
4272:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
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4203:
4202:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4185:
4182:
4178:
4175:
4174:
4173:
4172:Gonadotropins
4170:
4168:
4167:GnRH agonists
4165:
4163:
4160:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4147:
4146:
4143:
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4140:
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4045:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4032:
4031:
4026:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4013:
4012:"Womb to Let"
4009:
4006:
4005:
4000:
3999:
3995:
3979:
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3969:
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3833:9781108394871
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3546:
3534:
3533:www.canada.ca
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3171:
3170:Fair Observer
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2877:
2876:The Economist
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2011:
2007:
2000:
1997:
1985:
1984:
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1961:
1954:
1951:
1946:
1945:The Economist
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731:
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723:
718:
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712:
711:reincarnation
707:
705:
700:
696:
689:
687:
683:
675:
673:
666:
664:
660:
658:
654:
653:"çæ© shÄng'Än"
649:
642:
640:
638:
632:
630:
626:
618:
616:
612:
610:
606:
601:
596:
594:
588:
586:
585:prenatal care
580:
573:
571:
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562:
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219:preterm birth
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120:fertilization
119:
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68:
66:
62:
56:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
30:
26:
22:
5180:David Elkind
5031:Codependency
5016:Child labour
4872:Latchkey kid
4862:Introjection
4648:Introjection
4598:
4585:
4580:
4551:Noncustodial
4371:Egg donation
4344:
4028:
4015:
4003:
3981:. Retrieved
3977:
3968:
3954:
3942:. Retrieved
3938:
3907:. Retrieved
3875:
3850:
3841:
3815:
3809:
3797:. Retrieved
3793:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3736:. Retrieved
3732:
3705:
3693:. Retrieved
3667:cite journal
3642:
3632:
3620:. Retrieved
3616:
3572:. Retrieved
3567:
3536:. Retrieved
3532:
3486:2158/1162007
3466:
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