Multi-junction solar cell - Knowledge (XXG)

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shaded area under the red line represents the maximum work done by ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells. Hence, the limiting efficiency of ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells is evaluated to be 68.8% by comparing the shaded area defined by the red line with the total photon-flux area determined by the black line. (This is why this method is called "graphical" QE analysis.) Although this limiting efficiency value is consistent with the values published by Parrott and Vos in 1979: 64% and 68.2% respectively, there is a small gap between the estimated value in this report and literature values. This minor difference is most likely due to the different ways how to approximate the photon flux over 0–0.3096

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their bandgap energy. This assumption accounts for the first intrinsic loss in the efficiency of solar cells, which is caused by the inability of single-junction solar cells to properly match the broad solar energy spectrum. However, the current graphical QE analysis still cannot reflect the second intrinsic loss in the efficiency of solar cells, radiative recombination. To take the radiative recombination into account, we need to evaluate the radiative current density,

5561: 5245:(λ) (the power density of the light source in a specific wavelength λ) and the total photon flux density. It can be shown that a high (low) value for APE means low (high) wavelengths spectral conditions and higher (lower) efficiencies. Thus APE is a good indicator for quantifying the effects of the solar spectrum variations on performances and has the added advantage of being independent of the device structure and the absorption profile of the device. 410: 98:(c-Si) solar cells had efficiencies up to 27.1%, while lab examples of multi-junction cells have demonstrated performance over 46% under concentrated sunlight. Commercial examples of tandem cells are widely available at 30% under one-sun illumination, and improve to around 40% under concentrated sunlight. However, this efficiency is gained at the cost of increased complexity and manufacturing price. To date, their higher price and higher 1257:

tunneling region, the negative differential resistance region and the thermal diffusion region. The region where electrons can tunnel through the barrier is called the tunneling region. There, the voltage must be low enough so that energy of some electrons who are tunneling is equal to energy states available on the other side of the barrier. Consequently, current density through the tunnel junction is high (with maximum value of

8262: 5665: 1100: 5170:, is increased. Hence, the voltage is lower than that of the InGaP tunnel junction. GaAsSb heterojunction tunnel diodes offer other advantages. The same current can be achieved by using a lower doping. Secondly, because the lattice constant is larger for GaAsSb than Ge, one can use a wider range of materials for the bottom cell because more materials are lattice-matched to GaAsSb than to Ge. 5679: 139: 3180:

number of photons/m·s). To do that, it is necessary to carry out an intermediate unit conversion from the power of electromagnetic radiation incident per unit area per photon energy to the photon flux per photon energy (i.e., from to ). For this intermediate unit conversion, the following points have to be considered: A photon has a distinct energy which is defined as follows.

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However, the downside of the concentrator approach is that efficiency drops off very quickly under lower lighting conditions. In order to maximize its advantage over traditional cells and thus be cost competitive, the concentrator system has to track the sun as it moves to keep the light focused on the cell and maintain maximum efficiency as long as possible. This requires a

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non-concentrated version of the same design, one might expect a three-layer cell of 30% efficiency. This is not enough of an advantage over traditional silicon designs to make up for their extra production costs. For this reason, almost all multi-junction cell research for terrestrial use is dedicated to concentrator systems, normally using mirrors or Fresnel lenses.

8274: 1430:, these cannot jump above the barrier formed by the heterojunction because they don't have enough energy, as illustrated in figure E. Hence, electrons (holes) cannot recombine with holes (electrons) and cannot diffuse through the barrier. By the way, window and BSF layers must be transparent to wavelengths absorbed by the next pn junction; i.e., 1401: 2594: 3169: 3687: 1636: 1807: 945:, the trapping of the light in the material (because photons cannot easily get out the MJ structure due to pyramids) and therefore, the path length of photons in the material. On the one hand, the thickness of each AR layer is chosen to get destructive interferences. Therefore, the reflection coefficient 5578:

Measurements on MJ solar cells are usually made in the laboratory, using light concentrators (this is often not the case for the other cells) and under standard test conditions (STCs). STCs prescribe, for terrestrial applications, the AM1.5 spectrum as the reference. This air mass (AM) corresponds to

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m equal 10000 cm), produces the highest efficiencies seen to date. Three-layer cells are fundamentally limited to 63%, but existing commercial prototypes have already demonstrated over 40%. These cells capture about 2/3 of their theoretical maximum performance, so assuming the same is true for a

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The majority of multi-junction cells that have been produced to date use three layers (although many tandem a-Si:H/mc-Si modules have been produced and are widely available). However, the triple junction cells require the use of semiconductors that can be tuned to specific frequencies, which has led

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Now, we can fully use Henry's graphical QE analysis, taking into account the two major intrinsic losses in the efficiency of solar cells. The two main intrinsic losses are radiative recombination, and the inability of single junction solar cells to properly match the broad solar energy spectrum. The

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Conveniently, light of a particular wavelength does not interact strongly with materials that are of bigger bandgap. This means that you can make a multi-junction cell by layering the different materials on top of each other, shortest wavelengths (biggest bandgap) on the "top" and increasing through

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Combining all of these factors, the maximum efficiency for a single-bandgap material, like conventional silicon cells, is about 34%. That is, 66% of the energy in the sunlight hitting the cell will be lost. Practical concerns further reduce this, notably reflection off the front surface or the metal

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eV are not available. Regardless of this data unavailability, however, the graphical QE analysis can be done using the only available data with a reasonable assumption that semiconductors are opaque for photon energies greater than their bandgap energy, but transparent for photon energies less than

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too. This is why tunnel junctions are ideal for connecting two pn junctions without having a voltage drop. When voltage is higher, electrons cannot cross the barrier because energy states are no longer available for electrons. Therefore, the current density decreases and the differential resistance

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spectrum, although that represents almost half of the power coming from the sun. Conversely, photons with more energy than the bandgap, say blue light, initially eject an electron to a state high above the bandgap, but this extra energy is lost through collisions in a process known as "relaxation".

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Hence, electrons can easily tunnel through the depletion region. The J-V characteristic of the tunnel junction is very important because it explains why tunnel junctions can be used to have a low electrical resistance connection between two pn junctions. Figure D shows three different regions: the

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by matching currents of the three subcells. As example, because the current generated by the bottom cell is greater than the currents generated by the other cells, the thickness of AR layers is adjusted so that the infrared (IR) transmission (which corresponds to the bottom cell) is degraded while

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We can estimate the limiting efficiency of ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells using the graphical quantum-efficiency (QE) analysis invented by C. H. Henry. To fully take advantage of Henry's method, the unit of the AM1.5 spectral irradiance should be converted to that of photon flux (i.e.,

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The more difficult solution is the "monolithically integrated" cell, where the cell consists of a number of layers that are mechanically and electrically connected. These cells are much more difficult to produce because the electrical characteristics of each layer have to be carefully matched. In

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m would require 625 16 cm cells, but for a concentrator system only a single cell is needed, along with a concentrator. The argument for concentrated Multi-junction cells has been that the high cost of the cells themselves would be more than offset by the reduction in total number of cells.

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is the product of the thermal recombination currents of the two cells. Note that the values inserted for both short circuit currents and thermal recombination currents are those measured or calculated for the cells when they are placed in a multijunction stack (not the values measured for single

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eV. This results in too little current in the GaAs junction, and hampers the overall efficiency since the InGaP junction operates below MPP current and the GaAs junction operates above MPP current. To improve current match, the InGaP layer is intentionally thinned to allow additional photons to

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For instance, if one had a cell with two bandgaps in it, one tuned to red light and the other to green, then the extra energy in green, cyan and blue light would be lost only to the bandgap of the green-sensitive material, while the energy of the red, yellow and orange would be lost only to the

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The theoretical efficiency of MJ solar cells is 86.8% for an infinite number of pn junctions, implying that more junctions increase efficiency. The maximum theoretical efficiency is 37, 50, 56, 72% for 1, 2, 3, 36 additional pn junctions, respectively, with the number of junctions increasing

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semiconductor. Its bandgap can be tuned by varying the amount of indium in the alloy from 0.7 eV to 3.4 eV, thus making it an ideal material for solar cells. However, its conversion efficiencies because of technological factors unrelated to bandgap are still not high enough to be

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For maximum efficiency, each subcell should be operated at its optimal J-V parameters, which are not necessarily equal for each subcell. If they are different, the total current through the solar cell is the lowest of the three. By approximation, it results in the same relationship for the

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is to use thin films instead of thick layers in order to decrease the cost efficiency ratio. As of 2010, MJ solar panels are more expensive than others. These differences imply different applications: MJ solar cells are preferred in space and c-Si solar cells for terrestrial applications.

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and optically low-loss connection between two subcells. Without it, the p-doped region of the top cell would be directly connected with the n-doped region of the middle cell. Hence, a pn junction with opposite direction to the others would appear between the top cell and the middle cell.

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Based on the above result from the intermediate unit conversion, we can derive the photon flux by numerically integrating the photon flux per photon energy with respect to photon energy. The numerically integrated photon flux is calculated using the Trapezoidal rule, as follows.

125:, as opposed to conventional crystalline silicon, to produce a cell with about 10% efficiency that is lightweight and flexible. This approach has been used by several commercial vendors, but these products are currently limited to certain niche roles, like roofing materials. 5193:

exponentially to achieve equal efficiency increments. The exponential relationship implies that as the cell approaches the limit of efficiency, the increase cost and complexity grow rapidly. Decreasing the thickness of the top cell increases the transmission coefficient

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As of 2010, the cost of MJ solar cells was too high to allow use outside of specialized applications. The high cost is mainly due to the complex structure and the high price of materials. Nevertheless, with light concentrators under illumination of at least 400 suns,

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Consequently, the performance of MJ solar cells in outdoor environments is inferior to that achieved in the laboratory. Moreover, MJ solar cells are designed such that currents are matched under STC, but not necessarily under field conditions. One can use

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optics. Thanks to these devices, light arriving on a large surface can be concentrated on a smaller cell. The intensity concentration ratio (or "suns") is the average intensity of the focused light divided by 1 kW/m (reasonable value related to

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Indium phosphide-based cells have the potential to work in tandem with gallium arsenide cells. The two cells can be optically connected in series (with the InP cell below the GaAs cell), or in parallel through the use of spectra splitting using a

3384: 5212:) multi-junction technologies including tandems and triple- and quadruple-junction modules that typically use III–V semiconductors, with promising power conversion efficiency that rival and even outperform the benchmark silicon solar cells. 4936: 4498: 2021:{\displaystyle J={\frac {1}{2}}\left(J_{\text{SC,1}}+J_{\text{SC,2}}\right)+{\frac {1}{2}}T^{-}\Delta J_{\text{SC}}-\left(1-T^{+}\right){\sqrt {{\frac {1}{4}}{\Delta J_{\text{SC}}}^{2}+{\tilde {J}}_{0}^{2}\mathrm {e} ^{\frac {qV}{kT}}}}.} 1488: 4325: 3935: 4054:

The current density delivered to the load is the difference of the current densities due to absorbed solar and thermal radiation and the current density of radiation emitted from the top surface or absorbed in the substrate. Defining

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Cells made from multiple materials layers can have multiple bandgaps and will therefore respond to multiple light wavelengths, capturing and converting some of the energy that would otherwise be lost to relaxation as described above.

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in each layer better matches lattice constants of the different layers. Without it, there is about 0.08 percent of mismatching between layers, which inhibits performance. Adding aluminium to the top cell increases its band gap to

922:. This provides an electrical connection to a load or other parts of a solar cell array. They are usually on two sides of the cell. And are important to be on the back face so that shadowing on the lighting surface is reduced. 417:

for the efficiency of a single-junction solar cell. It is essentially impossible for a single-junction solar cell, under unconcentrated sunlight, to have more than ~34% efficiency. A multi-junction cell, however, can exceed that

3365: 1075:/4 to have opposite phase for reflected fields. On the other hand, the thickness of each AR layer is also chosen to minimize the reflectance at wavelengths for which the photocurrent is the lowest. Consequently, this maximizes 4225: 3821: 594:) to transmit to the lower sub-cells. Therefore, suitable bandgaps must be chosen such that the design spectrum will balance the current generation in each of the sub-cells, achieving current matching. Figure C(b) plots 5323:

A new technique was announced that year that allowed such cells to use a substrate of glass or steel, lower-cost vapors in reduced quantities that was claimed to offer costs competitive with conventional silicon cells.

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Current efficiencies for commercial InGaP/GaAs/Ge cells approach 40% under concentrated sunlight. Lab cells (partly using additional junctions between the GaAs and Ge junction) have demonstrated efficiencies above 40%.

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spectrum, shows the best balance is reached at about 1.1 eV (about 1100 nm, in the near infrared), which happens to be very close to the natural bandgap in silicon and a number of other useful semiconductors.

4582: 1039: 1373: 4049: 4601: 605:λ. It is plotted together with the maximum conversion efficiency for every junction as a function of the wavelength, which is directly related to the number of photons available for conversion into photocurrent. 5200:

An InGaP hetero-layer between the p-Ge layer and the InGaAs layer can be added in order to create automatically the n-Ge layer by scattering during MOCVD growth and increase significantly the quantum efficiency

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Lower, also called narrower, bandgap materials will convert longer wavelength, lower energy photons. Higher, or wider bandgap materials will convert shorter wavelength, higher energy light. An analysis of the

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Producing a tandem cell is not an easy task, largely due to the thinness of the materials and the difficulties extracting the current between the layers. The easy solution is to use two mechanically separate

2667:, i.e. the number of photons absorbed per unit of length by a material. If it is assumed that each photon absorbed by a subcell creates an electron/hole pair (which is a good approximation), this leads to: 2748: 1794: 2939: 5629:

The environment in space is quite different. Because there is no atmosphere, the solar spectrum is different (AM0). The cells have a poor current match due to a greater photon flux of photons above 1.87

5899: 460:, and the associated problem that it cannot extract any power at all from certain photons. This is due to the fact that the photons must have enough energy to overcome the bandgap of the material. 5152:-based heterojunction tunnel diodes, instead of conventional InGaP highly doped tunnel diodes described above, have a lower tunneling distance. Indeed, in the heterostructure formed by GaAsSb and 546:

particular, the photocurrent generated in each layer needs to be matched, otherwise electrons will be absorbed between layers. This limits their construction to certain materials, best met by the

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bandgap of the red-sensitive material. Following analysis similar to those performed for single-bandgap devices, it can be demonstrated that the perfect bandgaps for a two-gap device are at 0.77

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which contain a small degree of lattice mismatch. However, a greater degree of mismatch or other growth imperfections can lead to crystal defects causing a degradation in electronic properties.

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are not necessarily matched and the total current becomes lower. These variations can be quantified using the average photon energy (APE) which is the ratio between the spectral irradiance

2589:{\displaystyle QE_{i}(\lambda )={\frac {J_{{\text{SC}}i}(\lambda )}{q\phi _{i}(\lambda )}}\Rightarrow J_{{\text{SC}}i}=\int _{0}^{\lambda 2}q\phi _{i}(\lambda )QE_{i}(\lambda )\,d\lambda } 2808: 5595:(λ) contains no information on the matching of currents of subcells. An important alternative comparison point is the output power per unit area generated with the same incident light. 3698: 3164:{\displaystyle J_{i}=J_{0i}\left(e^{\frac {qV_{i}}{kT}}-1\right)-J_{{\text{SC}}i}\Rightarrow V_{{\text{OC}}i}\approx {\frac {kT}{q}}\ln \left({\frac {J_{{\text{SC}}i}}{J_{0i}}}\right)} 608:

Finally, the layers must be electrically optimal for high performance. This necessitates usage of materials with strong absorption coefficients α(λ), high minority carrier lifetimes τ

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In order to avoid the reduction of the MJ solar cell performances, tunnel junctions must be transparent to wavelengths absorbed by the next photovoltaic cell, the middle cell, i.e.

4389: 1128:. In order to decrease this effect, a tunnel junction is used. It is simply a wide band gap, highly doped diode. The high doping reduces the length of the depletion region because 2124: 1723: 3259: 2665: 2975: 2636: 463:

If the photon has less energy than the bandgap, it is not collected at all. This is a major consideration for conventional solar cells, which are not sensitive to most of the

1693: 1666: 3682:{\displaystyle n_{\text{ph}}(E_{g})=\int _{E_{\text{g}}}^{\infty }{\frac {dn_{\text{ph}}}{dhv}}\,dhv=\sum _{i=E_{\text{g}}}^{\infty }(hv_{i+1}-hv_{i}){\frac {1}{2}}\left\,} 5295:

Using a concentrator also has the added benefit that the number of cells needed to cover a given amount of ground area is greatly reduced. A conventional system covering 1

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Figure C. (a) The structure of an MJ solar cell. There are six important types of layers: pn junctions, back surface field (BSF) layers, window layers, tunnel junctions,

5552:. Physically, the main property of a MJ solar cell is having more than one pn junction in order to catch a larger photon energy spectrum while the main property of the 1631:{\displaystyle J={\frac {1}{2}}\left(J_{\text{SC,1}}+J_{\text{SC,2}}\right)-{\sqrt {{\frac {1}{4}}{\Delta J_{\text{SC}}}^{2}+J_{0}^{2}\mathrm {e} ^{\frac {qV}{kT}}}},} 5575:

The efficiencies of solar cells and Si solar technology are relatively stable, while the efficiencies of solar modules and multi-junction technology are progressing.

4398: 1416:. Similarly, a back-surface field (BSF) layer reduces the scattering of carriers towards the tunnel junction. The structure of these two layers is the same: it is a 558:

The choice of materials for each sub-cell is determined by the requirements for lattice-matching, current-matching, and high performance opto-electronic properties.

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As a result of this intermediate unit conversion, the AM1.5 spectral irradiance is given in unit of the photon flux per photon energy, , as shown in Figure 1.

1801:-characteristic for two ideal (operating at the radiative limit) cells that are allowed to exchange luminesence, and thus are radiatively coupled, is given by 542:'s products use three such layers to reach efficiencies around 9%. Lab examples using more exotic thin-film materials have demonstrated efficiencies over 30%. 7249: 6644:

Kuykendall, T.; Ulrich, Philipp; Aloni, Shaul; Yang, Peidong (2007). "Complete compositional tunability of InGaN nanowires using a combinatorial approach".

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are transfer coefficients that describes the exchange of photons between the cells. The transfer coefficients depend on the refractive index of the cells.

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Light concentrators increase efficiencies and reduce the cost/efficiency ratio. The three types of light concentrators in use are refractive lenses like

4140: 7225:(DOE)'s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) has led to record-breaking sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiencies in solar cells. 3745: 117:

Tandem fabrication techniques have been used to improve the performance of existing designs. In particular, the technique can be applied to lower cost

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C. Zhang, J. Gwamuri, R. Andrews, and J. M. Pearce, (2014). Design of Multi-Junction Photovoltaic Cells Optimized for Varied Atmospheric Conditions,

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transmission (which corresponds to the top cell) is upgraded. Particularly, an AR coating is very important at low wavelengths because, without it,

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that hit the top of the solar cell are either reflected or transmitted into the cell. Transmitted photons have the potential to give their energy,

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eV, better balancing the junction currents. Radiation particles that are no longer filtered can damage the cell. There are two kinds of damage:

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Since each sub-cell is connected electrically in series, the same current flows through each junction. The materials are ordered with decreasing

2384:(λ) is utilized. It measures the ratio between the amount of electron-hole pairs created and the incident photons at a given wavelength λ. Let φ 984: 565:

of each material must be closely matched, resulting in lattice-matched devices. This constraint has been relaxed somewhat in recently developed

4738:{\displaystyle W_{\text{m}}={\frac {J_{\text{m}}V_{\text{m}}}{n_{\text{ph}}}}\,={\frac {eV_{\text{m}}}{1+kT/eV_{\text{m}}}}\,=eV_{\text{m}}-kT} 1295: 7209: 7190: 6788: 6053: 6028: 3976: 6246: 5564: 5041:(Ge) can be fabricated on germanium wafers. Early cells used straight gallium arsenide in the middle junction. Later cells have utilized In 1408:

of a window layer. The surface recombination is reduced. (b) Layers and band diagram of a BSF layer. The scattering of carriers is reduced.

1246:{\displaystyle l_{\text{depl}}={\sqrt {{\frac {2\epsilon (\phi _{0}-V)}{q}}{\frac {N_{\text{A}}+N_{\text{D}}}{N_{\text{A}}N_{\text{D}}}}}}} 199:

with metallic contacts deposited on the top and bottom. The doping is normally applied to a thin layer on the top of the cell, producing a

5922: 1284:, the peak current density) and the slope near the origin is therefore steep. Then, the resistance is extremely low and consequently, the 5220:

Solar spectrum at the Earth surface changes constantly depending on the weather and sun position. This results in the variation of φ(λ),

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Strehlke, S; Bastide, S; Guillet, J; Levyclement, C (2000). "Design of porous silicon antireflection coatings for silicon solar cells".

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of 33.16%. Theoretically, an infinite number of junctions would have a limiting efficiency of 86.8% under highly concentrated sunlight.

7061: 8005: 7357: 6240:"AlGaAs Tunnel Junction for high efficiency multi-junction solar cells: simulation and measurement of temperature-dependent operation" 6000: 3692:

As a result of this numerical integration, the AM1.5 spectral irradiance is given in unit of the photon flux, , as shown in Figure 2.

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Yamaguchi, M; Takamoto, T; Araki, K; Ekinsdaukes, N (2005). "Multi-junction III–V solar cells: current status and future potential".

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accelerates both electrons and holes towards their respective n-doped and p-doped regions (up and down, respectively). The resulting

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Proceedings of 1994 IEEE 1st World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion - WCPEC (A Joint Conference of PVSC, PVSEC and PSEC)

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and atomic displacement. Still, MJ cells offer higher radiation resistance, higher efficiency and a lower temperature coefficient.

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1.5 solar spectrum, together with the maximum electricity conversion efficiency for every junction as a function of the wavelength.

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allows the absorbance of a broader range of wavelengths, improving the cell's sunlight to electrical energy conversion efficiency.

5881: 5156:, the valence band of GaAsSb is higher than the valence band of the adjoining p-doped layer. Consequently, the tunneling distance 8138: 7901: 7382: 6170: 5126:(InGaN) is a semiconductor material made of a mix of gallium nitride (GaN) and indium nitride (InN). It is a ternary group III–V 7203: 6769:

J.C. Zolper; Plut; Tigges; et al. (1994). "GaAsSb-based heterojunction tunnel diodes for tandem solar cell interconnects".

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D. Crisp; A. Pathareb; R. C. Ewell (2004). "The performance of gallium arsenide/germanium solar cells at the Martian surface".

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Peharz, G.; Siefer, G.; Bett, A.W. (2009). "A simple method for quantifying spectral impacts on multi-junction solar cells".

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of the tunnel junction. Because the length of the depletion region is narrow and the band gap is high, electrons can tunnel.

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Albuflasa, H; Gottschalg, R; Betts, T (2007). "Modeling the effect of varying spectra on multi junction A-SI solar cells".

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In terrestrial concentrating applications, the scatter of blue light by the atmosphere reduces the photon flux above 1.87

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W/m. Therefore, spectral variations of incident light and environmental parameters are not taken into account under STC.

4755: 2303:{\displaystyle {\tilde {J}}_{0}^{2}=\left(1+2n_{\text{r}}^{2}\right)\left(J_{0,2}+2n_{\text{r}}^{2}J_{0,1}\right)J_{0,1}} 1289:

is negative. The last region, called thermal diffusion region, corresponds to the J-V characteristic of the usual diode:

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Yam, F.K.; Hassan, Z. (2008). "InGaN: An overview of the growth kinetics, physical properties and emission mechanisms".

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P serve as the high band gap alloy. This alloy range provides for the ability to have band gaps in the range 1.92–1.87

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The favorable values in the table below justify the choice of materials typically used for multi-junction solar cells:

423: 414: 8113: 7588: 7273: 507: 7024: 6609:

Green, M.A.; Emery, K.; Hishikawa, Y.; Warta, W.; Dunlop, E.D. (2012). "Solar cell efficiency tables (version 40)".

5344:, contains technologies that are still in the research or development phase and are not listed in the table below. 5283:

Using concentrations on the order of 500 to 1000, meaning that a 1 cm cell can use the light collected from 0.1

8305: 8123: 7976: 7965: 7839: 7686: 7644: 7624: 5697: 5605: 5254: 5205:(λ) of the bottom cell. InGaP is advantageous because of its high scattering coefficient and low solubility in Ge. 933:(AR) coating is generally composed of several layers in the case of MJ solar cells. The top AR layer has usually a 660:

eV). The use of Ge is mainly due to its lattice constant, robustness, low cost, abundance, and ease of production.

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equation. Thus, we will neglect this term to simplify the following discussion. Then we can express J as follows.

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Yamaguchi, M; Takamoto, T; Araki, K (2006). "Super high-efficiency multi-junction and concentrator solar cells".

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R.Delamare, O.Bulteel, D.Flandre, Conversion lumière/électricité: notions fondamentales et exemples de recherche

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This lost energy turns into heat in the cell, which has the side-effect of further increasing blackbody losses.

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is current density, i.e. current per unit area) of a solar cell under illumination are obtained by shifting the

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The theoretical performance of a solar cell was first studied in depth in the 1960s, and is today known as the

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Henry, C. H. (1980). "Limiting efficiencies of ideal single and multiple energy gap terrestrial solar cells".

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Liu, Lei; Chen, Nuofu; Bai, Yiming; Cui, Ming; Zhang, Han; Gao, Fubao; Yin, Zhigang; Zhang, Xingwang (2008).

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Rühle, Sven (2016-02-08). "Tabulated Values of the Shockley–Queisser Limit for Single Junction Solar Cells".

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Figure 3. Maximum work by ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells under standard AM1.5 spectral irradiance.

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the body of the cell. As the photons have to pass through the cell to reach the proper layer to be absorbed,

8128: 8048: 7926: 7896: 7654: 7634: 7563: 7449: 7444: 7413: 7408: 5670: 5397: 5153: 5088: 5034: 3340:{\displaystyle {\frac {dn_{\text{ph}}}{dhv}}={\frac {E}{E_{\text{ph}}}}={\frac {E}{\frac {hc}{\lambda }}}\,} 2824: 930: 872: 518: 441:, this loss accounts for about 7% of the power. The second is an effect known as "recombination", where the 297:

appear. The expression for this photocurrent is obtained by adding generation and scattering photocurrents:

6961: 5957: 4347: 27: 8266: 8108: 8078: 8043: 8030: 7916: 7691: 7492: 7482: 7377: 7266: 5341: 5123: 2088: 1698: 1458:. Furthermore, the lattice constant must be close to the one of InGaP and the layer must be highly doped ( 668: 663:

Because the different layers are closely lattice-matched, the fabrication of the device typically employs

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accelerates holes (electrons) towards the p-doped (n-doped) region, which gives a scattering photocurrent

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However, the dominant loss mechanism is the inability of a solar cell to extract all of the power in the

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Shockley, W; Queisser, H.A. (1961). "Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of p-n Junction Solar Cells".

5568: 5445: 5209: 1116: 107: 88: 2641: 114:(CPV), but cannot compete with single junction solar panels unless a higher power density is required. 2948: 2602: 8300: 8118: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8063: 8058: 7573: 7502: 7347: 7315: 7182: 7134: 6826: 6743: 6700: 6653: 6530: 6487: 6452: 6417: 6343: 6101: 5763: 5612: 5553: 5337: 1671: 1644: 1121: 531: 522: 446: 118: 1474:

In a stack of two cells, where radiative coupling does not occur, and where each of the cells has a

7772: 7752: 7719: 7527: 7463: 7403: 7362: 5391: 5333: 748: 595: 566: 430: 147: 95: 5060:

eV), the current match is very poor, with the Ge junction operated significantly current limited.

2129: 7808: 7767: 7714: 7487: 7367: 7231: 6940: 6794: 6716: 6626: 6546: 6503: 6390: 6316: 6298: 5850: 5264: 6963:

Impact of spectral effects on the electrical parameters of multijunction amorphous silicon cells

7813: 5919: 4493:{\displaystyle eV_{\text{m}}=eV_{\text{OC}}-kT\ln \left(1+{\frac {eV_{\text{m}}}{kT}}\right)\,} 7834: 7829: 7762: 7558: 7497: 7428: 7418: 7186: 7176: 6980: 6932: 6891: 6873: 6784: 6669: 6289:

Strandberg, Rune (2020). "An Analytic Approach to the Modeling of Multijunction Solar Cells".

6049: 6024: 5450: 2126:

also depend on the refractive index of the cells. If the cells have the same refractive index

535: 154:

give their energy to electrons in the depletion or quasi-neutral regions. These move from the

122: 35: 7062:"High Efficiency Solar Cells for the Price of Conventional Ones | MIT Technology Review" 453:

left behind by previous excitations. In silicon, this accounts for another 10% of the power.

69: 7891: 7859: 7849: 7320: 7142: 7091: 6970: 6924: 6881: 6865: 6834: 6776: 6751: 6708: 6661: 6618: 6538: 6495: 6460: 6425: 6382: 6351: 6308: 6200: 6166: 6132: 6109: 5842: 5771: 5072: 5030: 4970: 4320:{\displaystyle eV_{\text{OC}}=E_{\text{g}}-kT\ln \left({\frac {A}{en_{\text{ph}}}}\right)\,} 3930:{\displaystyle A={\frac {2\pi \,\exp \left(n^{2}+1\right)E_{\text{g}}^{2}kT}{h^{3}c^{2}}}\,} 810: 248: 2061: 2034: 1260: 409: 7803: 7734: 7243: 7047: 6521:

Parrott, J. (1979). "The limiting efficiency of an edge-illuminated multigap solar cell".

5945: 5926: 5182:

eV, covering a larger part of the solar spectrum and obtain a higher open-circuit voltage

5112: 1112: 534:

and then wire them together separately outside the cell. This technique is widely used by

426:. The limit describes several loss mechanisms that are inherent to any solar cell design. 283: 159: 6174: 6092:

Miles, R (2006). "Photovoltaic solar cells: Choice of materials and production methods".

7138: 6830: 6747: 6704: 6657: 6534: 6491: 6456: 6421: 6371:"Quantum efficiency and temperature coefficients of GaInP/GaAs dual-junction solar cell" 6347: 6105: 5767: 3371:

Figure 1. Photon flux per photon energy from standard solar energy spectrum (AM of 1.5).

17: 8213: 8188: 7854: 7706: 7608: 7598: 7568: 7325: 6886: 6853: 6689:"Progress in Indium Gallium Nitride Materials for Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion" 5830: 5611:

As less expensive multi-junction materials become available other applications involve

5313: 5312:

As of 2014 multi-junction cells were expensive to produce, using techniques similar to

5269: 5127: 1421: 1417: 394: 7146: 6136: 76:. Each material's p-n junction will produce electric current in response to different 8294: 7875: 7798: 7788: 7701: 7593: 7310: 7289: 6944: 6911: 6798: 6550: 6542: 6507: 6499: 6478:

Vos, A. D. (1980). "Detailed balance limit of the efficiency of tandem solar cells".

6320: 6152:"Antireflection coating design for multi-junction, series interconnected solar cells" 5867: 5684: 5616: 5301: 450: 434: 237: 167: 81: 6720: 6630: 6394: 6222:

J.F.Klem, S.Park, J.C.Zolper, Semiconductor tunnel junction with enhancement layer,

5854: 5560: 3951:

is evaluated to be 3.6, the value for GaAs. The incident absorbed thermal radiation

521:

and metallic contacts. (b) Graph of spectral irradiance E vs. wavelength λ over the

513: 8243: 8198: 7931: 7603: 6912:"Life cycle assessment of recycling strategies for perovskite photovoltaic modules" 5260: 4220:{\displaystyle J=en_{\text{ph}}-A\exp \left({\frac {eV-E_{\text{g}}}{kT}}\right)\,} 1405: 1104: 258: 200: 178: 155: 143: 6838: 6355: 6074: 5900:"30.2 Percent Efficiency – New Record for Silicon-based Multi-junction Solar Cell" 5775: 5332:

There are four main categories of photovoltaic cells: conventional mono- and poly-

4973:(GaAs) compounds, often germanium for the bottom-, GaAs for the middle-, and GaInP 1099: 6312: 6204: 6113: 5981: 5846: 5340:(a-Si, CIGS and CdTe), and multi-junction (MJ) solar cells. The fourth category, 3816:{\displaystyle J_{\text{rad}}=A\exp \left({\frac {eV-E_{\text{g}}}{kT}}\right)\,} 2352:(λ) is the short-circuit current density at a given wavelength λ for the subcell 8238: 8208: 8183: 7941: 7578: 7553: 7095: 6370: 5938: 5664: 5421: 5049:

As, due to the better lattice match to Ge, resulting in a lower defect density.

1084: 138: 31: 7040: 6928: 6755: 6002:

High-efficiency multi-junction solar cells: current status and future potential

5804: 561:

For optimal growth and resulting crystal quality, the crystal lattice constant

7724: 7696: 7474: 6780: 6712: 6589:"The World's leading provider of compound semiconductor and lighting products" 6386: 6224: 5712: 5660: 5650: 5623: 915: 602: 351:. Since solar cells are designed to supply power and not absorb it, the power 65: 44: 6936: 6877: 5868:"Solar Junction Breaks Concentrated Solar World Record with 43.5% Efficiency" 5173:

Chemical components can be added to some layers. Adding about one percent of

1412:

A window layer is used in order to reduce the surface recombination velocity

110:

is desirable. In terrestrial applications, these solar cells are emerging in

8015: 7921: 7793: 5707: 5678: 5038: 841: 646: 539: 103: 6895: 6869: 6673: 6588: 5548:

MJ solar cells and other photovoltaic devices have significant differences

4577:{\displaystyle J_{\text{m}}={\frac {en_{\text{ph}}}{1+kT/eV_{\text{m}}}}\,} 1034:{\displaystyle n_{\text{L2}}=n_{\text{AlInP}}^{\frac {1}{2}}n_{\text{L1}}} 8228: 8218: 8193: 5075:

may be used as a substrate to fabricate cells with band gaps between 1.35

2810:

is the percentage of incident light which is not absorbed by the subcell

919: 464: 442: 222: 163: 5163:

is reduced and so the tunneling current, which exponentially depends on

3709:

There are no photon flux data in the small photon energy ranges 0–0.3096

1368:{\displaystyle J=J_{S}\left(\exp \left({\frac {qV}{kT}}\right)-1\right)} 510:

need to be used to collect the electrons being generated at each layer.

8233: 4985:

Dual junction cells can be made on Gallium arsenide wafers. Alloys of

4044:{\displaystyle J_{th}=A\exp \left({\frac {-E_{\text{g}}}{kT}}\right)\,} 1285: 938: 672: 573: 204: 196: 6464: 6171:

10.1002/1099-159X(200011/12)8:6<563::AID-PIP327>3.0.CO;2-8

6046:

Third generation photovoltaics : advanced solar energy conversion

5984:, Technical Information Office, Solar Energy Research Institute (1982) 5579:

a fixed position of the sun in the sky of 48° and a fixed power of 833

3704:

Figure 2. Photon flux from standard solar energy spectrum (AM of 1.5).

1400: 6975: 6665: 6622: 6429: 5174: 5149: 1695:

are the short circuit currents of the individual cells in the stack,

631: 214: 151: 7205:

Berkeley Lab Research Sparks Record-Breaking Solar Cell Performance

6303: 2380:

directly from the total J-V characteristic, the quantum efficiency

5099:

As) is lattice matched to Indium Phosphide with a band gap of 0.74

2390:(λ) be the photon flux of corresponding incident light in subcell 1399: 1125: 616: 477: 457: 408: 341: 137: 918:

that make contact with the semiconductor layers. They are often

50:

Solar power cell with multiple band gaps from different materials

7258: 5791:

Third Generation Photovoltaics: Advanced Solar Energy Conversion

5010: 934: 7262: 7041:"NREL Solar Cell Sets World Efficiency Record at 40.8 Percent" 2743:{\displaystyle QE_{i}(\lambda )=1-e^{-\alpha (\lambda )d_{i}}} 1789:{\displaystyle J_{0}^{2}=J_{\mathrm {0,1} }J_{\mathrm {0,2} }} 5882:"Sharp Hits Concentrator Solar Cell Efficiency Record, 43.5%" 2934:{\displaystyle V_{\text{OC}}=\sum _{i=1}^{3}V_{{\text{OC}}i}} 261:. In the quasi-neutral region, the scattering electric field 87:

Traditional single-junction cells have a maximum theoretical

5107:

can be lattice matched for any band gap in between the two.

1725:

is the difference between these short circuit currents, and

6909:

Tian, Xueyu; Stranks, Samuel D.; You, Fengqi (2021-06-24).

5591:(λ) to compare performances of different technologies, but 6852:

Tian, Xueyu; Stranks, Samuel D.; You, Fengqi (July 2020).

5263:, reflective dishes (parabolic or cassegraine), and light 4916:(red line) is plotted in Figure 3 for different values of 3713:

eV because the standard (AM1.5) solar energy spectrum for

2638:

is obtained by linking it with the absorption coefficient

433:, a loss mechanism that affects any material object above 472:

terminals, with modern high-quality cells at about 22%.

240:

pair. In the depletion region, the drift electric field

192:

Traditional photovoltaic cells are commonly composed of

7050:, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 13 August 2008 5052:

Due to the huge band gap difference between GaAs (1.42

5831:"Four-Junction Wafer Bonded Concentrator Solar Cells" 4952:

eV. Here, we approximated the photon flux as 0–0.3096

4758: 4604: 4508: 4401: 4350: 4244: 4143: 3979: 3831: 3748: 3387: 3262: 2986: 2951: 2881: 2827: 2767: 2676: 2644: 2605: 2416: 2159: 2132: 2091: 2064: 2037: 1810: 1731: 1701: 1674: 1647: 1491: 1420:

which catches electrons (holes). Indeed, despite the

1298: 1263: 1137: 1041:

to have the same amplitudes for reflected fields and

987: 7127:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

6611:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

6159:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

3729:, first. According to Shockley and Queisser method, 102:

have limited their use to special roles, notably in

8176: 8160: 8151: 8029: 7998: 7975: 7964: 7884: 7868: 7822: 7781: 7679: 7672: 7617: 7546: 7473: 7462: 7437: 7391: 7303: 7296: 4899:{\displaystyle W_{\text{m}}=E_{\text{g}}-kT\left\,} 1124:would be lower than if there would be no parasitic 6910: 4898: 4737: 4576: 4492: 4383: 4319: 4219: 4043: 3929: 3815: 3681: 3339: 3163: 2969: 2933: 2867: 2802: 2742: 2659: 2630: 2588: 2302: 2145: 2118: 2077: 2050: 2020: 1797:junction cells of the respective cell types.) The 1788: 1717: 1687: 1660: 1630: 1367: 1276: 1245: 1033: 941:in order to increase the transmission coefficient 601:(λ), which is the source power density at a given 5320:but on "chip" sizes on the order of centimeters. 1478:-characteristic given by the diode equation, the 7178:Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering 94:As of 2024 the best lab examples of traditional 4126:eV, as can be shown by evaluation of the above 949:decreases to 1%. In the case of two AR layers L 7175:Luque, Antonio; Hegedus, Steven, eds. (2003). 5304:system, which increases yield, but also cost. 5224:(λ), α(λ) and thus the short-circuit currents 362:must be negative. Hence, the operating point ( 8168:List of countries by photovoltaics production 7845:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One 7274: 5622:MJ cells are currently being utilized in the 5208:Currently, there are several commercial (non- 4391:. The familiar result of this calculation is 4230:The open-circuit voltage is found by setting 2403:(λ) be the quantum efficiency of the subcell 667:(MOCVD). This technique is preferable to the 8: 7221:Theoretical research by scientists with the 7159: 7011: 6999: 6565:"CPV Solar Cells—Azurspace Power Solar GmbH" 6273: 5083:eV. Indium Phosphide has a band gap of 1.35 4748:Combining the last three equations, we have 2314:short-circuit current of the MJ solar cell: 282:). Consequently, due to the accumulation of 7650:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 5982:"Basic Photovoltaic Principles and Methods" 4594:) done per absorbed photon, Wm is given by 2875:, the following approximation can be used: 2803:{\displaystyle e^{-\alpha (\lambda )d_{i}}} 8157: 7972: 7676: 7523:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 7470: 7300: 7281: 7267: 7259: 6693:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 2977:are then given by the J-V diode equation: 914:The metallic contacts are low-resistivity 6974: 6969:. Loughborough University. January 2003. 6885: 6687:McLaughlin, D.V.P.; Pearce, J.M. (2013). 6302: 6284: 6282: 4956:eV as the same as the photon flux at 0.31 4895: 4862: 4852: 4819: 4806: 4776: 4763: 4757: 4720: 4709: 4700: 4688: 4668: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4635: 4625: 4618: 4609: 4603: 4573: 4564: 4552: 4532: 4522: 4513: 4507: 4489: 4467: 4457: 4425: 4409: 4400: 4374: 4351: 4349: 4316: 4303: 4290: 4265: 4252: 4243: 4216: 4195: 4179: 4157: 4142: 4040: 4019: 4009: 3984: 3978: 3926: 3917: 3907: 3889: 3884: 3863: 3847: 3838: 3830: 3812: 3791: 3775: 3753: 3747: 3678: 3664: 3634: 3624: 3606: 3576: 3566: 3551: 3542: 3520: 3504: 3497: 3486: 3469: 3449: 3439: 3433: 3426: 3421: 3405: 3392: 3386: 3336: 3316: 3305: 3296: 3273: 3263: 3261: 3237:Then the photon flux per photon energy, d 3146: 3132: 3131: 3125: 3100: 3087: 3086: 3069: 3068: 3032: 3022: 3004: 2991: 2985: 2957: 2956: 2950: 2921: 2920: 2910: 2899: 2886: 2880: 2859: 2849: 2838: 2826: 2792: 2772: 2766: 2732: 2712: 2684: 2675: 2643: 2613: 2604: 2579: 2564: 2542: 2526: 2521: 2504: 2503: 2478: 2450: 2449: 2442: 2424: 2415: 2288: 2267: 2257: 2252: 2230: 2210: 2205: 2178: 2173: 2162: 2161: 2158: 2137: 2131: 2110: 2105: 2094: 2093: 2090: 2069: 2063: 2042: 2036: 1992: 1987: 1980: 1975: 1964: 1963: 1953: 1946: 1938: 1927: 1925: 1914: 1890: 1877: 1863: 1849: 1836: 1817: 1809: 1773: 1772: 1755: 1754: 1741: 1736: 1730: 1709: 1700: 1679: 1673: 1652: 1646: 1602: 1597: 1590: 1585: 1572: 1565: 1557: 1546: 1544: 1530: 1517: 1498: 1490: 1482:-characteristic of the stack is given by 1330: 1309: 1297: 1268: 1262: 1232: 1222: 1210: 1197: 1190: 1169: 1153: 1151: 1142: 1136: 1025: 1010: 1005: 992: 986: 7985:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system 6069: 6067: 6065: 5807:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 5559: 5346: 5280:higher under concentrated illumination. 1098: 677: 512: 26: 7952:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge 7947:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge 5939:"Concentrating Photovoltaic Technology" 5724: 4932: 3694: 3361: 2359:Because of the impossibility to obtain 665:metal-organic chemical vapor deposition 7239: 7229: 6193:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 3248:ν, with respect to certain irradiance 2868:{\displaystyle V=\sum _{i=1}^{3}V_{i}} 188:, which gives scattering photocurrent. 7210:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 7025:"Solar cell breaks efficiency record" 6956: 6954: 6812: 6810: 6808: 6523:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 6480:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 6269: 6267: 6265: 6263: 6261: 6259: 6218: 6216: 6214: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5968: 5966: 5805:"Best Research-Cell Efficiency Chart" 5234:. As a result, the current densities 4384:{\displaystyle {\frac {dJV}{dV}}\,=0} 4344:) is found by setting the derivative 3234:is frequency , and λ is wavelength . 7: 8273: 7110:International Journal of Photoenergy 6375:Science China Technological Sciences 5619:with varied atmospheric conditions. 5565:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 5025:Triple junction cells consisting of 2119:{\displaystyle {\tilde {J}}_{0}^{2}} 1718:{\displaystyle \Delta J_{\text{SC}}} 675:quality and large scale production. 7990:List of photovoltaic power stations 6129:Materials Science and Engineering B 5811:from the original on March 14, 2023 5642:penetrate to the lower GaAs layer. 1396:Window layer and back-surface field 8006:Rooftop photovoltaic power station 7409:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si) 7358:Third-generation photovoltaic cell 6238:J.F.Wheeldon; et al. (2009). 5328:Comparison with other technologies 3505: 3434: 2407:. By definition, this equates to: 1988: 1939: 1883: 1702: 1598: 1558: 1091:would be strongly reduced to 70%. 25: 8011:Building-integrated photovoltaics 7508:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics 7414:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) 6736:Superlattices and Microstructures 5318:metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy 5105:indium gallium arsenide phosphide 2660:{\displaystyle \alpha (\lambda )} 937:surface texturation with several 439:standard temperature and pressure 376:) is located in the region where 74:different semiconductor materials 43:triple-junction gallium arsenide 8272: 8261: 8260: 7383:Polarizing organic photovoltaics 5880:Shahan, Zachary (May 31, 2012). 5698:Concentrator photovoltaics (CVP) 5677: 5663: 5314:semiconductor device fabrication 5119:Indium gallium nitride substrate 4935: 3738:can be approximated as follows. 3697: 3364: 2970:{\displaystyle V_{{\text{OC}}i}} 2757:is the thickness of the subcell 2631:{\displaystyle QE_{i}(\lambda )} 437:. In the case of solar cells at 429:The first are the losses due to 7518:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics 7399:List of semiconductor materials 5693:List of semiconductor materials 5144:Many MJ photovoltaic cells use 5013:junction has a band gap of 1.42 3175:Theoretical limiting efficiency 1688:{\displaystyle J_{\text{SC,2}}} 1661:{\displaystyle J_{\text{SC,1}}} 7630:Incremental conductance method 7424:Copper indium gallium selenide 7373:Thermodynamic efficiency limit 6044:Green, Martin (11 July 2003). 6021:Third Generation Photovoltaics 4969:to most of them being made of 3670: 3654: 3618: 3596: 3548: 3510: 3411: 3398: 3252:can be calculated as follows. 3079: 2785: 2779: 2725: 2719: 2696: 2690: 2654: 2648: 2625: 2619: 2576: 2570: 2554: 2548: 2496: 2490: 2484: 2466: 2460: 2436: 2430: 2167: 2099: 1969: 1181: 1162: 671:(MBE) because it ensures high 583:, allowing sub-bandgap light ( 1: 7937:South African Solar Challenge 7147:10.1016/S0094-5765(02)00287-4 6839:10.1016/j.solener.2004.09.018 6775:. Vol. 2. p. 1843. 6356:10.1016/j.solener.2009.05.009 6291:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 6137:10.1016/S0921-5107(99)00272-X 5958:"Uni-Solar Energy Production" 5835:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 5776:10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.015 393:, and chosen to maximize the 162:. Depending on the location, 7584:Photovoltaic mounting system 7060:Bullis, Kevin (2014-06-09). 6313:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2020.3013974 6205:10.1016/j.solmat.2006.06.028 6114:10.1016/j.vacuum.2006.01.006 5902:. Fraunhofer ISE. 2016-11-09 5847:10.1109/jphotov.2015.2501729 5276:then the MJ current becomes 4115:for all semiconductors with 4108:, is negligible compared to 2146:{\displaystyle n_{\text{r}}} 7589:Maximum power point tracker 7202:Yarris, Lynn (7 Nov 2011). 7096:10.1016/j.desal.2007.04.012 5131:competitive in the market. 5103:eV. A quaternary alloy of 4587:Finally, the maximum work ( 8327: 7840:Solar panels on spacecraft 7687:Solar-powered refrigerator 7645:Concentrated photovoltaics 7625:Perturb and observe method 7404:Crystalline silicon (c-Si) 6929:10.1038/s41893-021-00737-z 6756:10.1016/j.spmi.2007.05.001 6543:10.1088/0022-3727/12/3/014 6500:10.1088/0022-3727/13/5/018 6445:Journal of Applied Physics 6410:Journal of Applied Physics 5255:Concentrator photovoltaics 5252: 5249:Use of light concentrators 5068:Indium phosphide substrate 4981:Gallium arsenide substrate 4909:Using the above equation, 112:concentrator photovoltaics 100:price-to-performance ratio 8256: 7538:Heterojunction solar cell 7513:Dye-sensitized solar cell 7353:Multi-junction solar cell 7343:Nominal power (Watt-peak) 7223:U.S. Department of Energy 6781:10.1109/WCPEC.1994.520724 6713:10.1007/s11661-013-1622-1 6387:10.1007/s11431-008-0203-9 5789:Green, Martin A. (2003). 5703:Organic photovoltaic cell 5444: 5390: 4330:The maximum power point ( 3947:is in electron volts and 1404:Figure E: (a) Layers and 649:for the bottom sub-cell ( 634:for the middle sub-cell ( 612:, and high mobilities μ. 236:, generating an electron- 177:, which gives generation 8021:Strasskirchen Solar Park 7912:American Solar Challenge 7758:Solar-powered flashlight 7745:Solar-powered calculator 7740:Solar cell phone charger 7429:Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 7160:Luque & Hegedus 2003 7012:Luque & Hegedus 2003 7000:Luque & Hegedus 2003 6274:Luque & Hegedus 2003 6048:. Springer. p. 61. 5715:(a-Si/μc-Si tandem-cell) 5633:eV vs those between 1.87 5135:Performance improvements 5027:indium gallium phosphide 4987:Indium gallium phosphide 953:(the top layer, usually 344:in the dark downward by 257:is called the generated 82:semiconducting materials 18:Multijunction solar cell 7927:Frisian Solar Challenge 7897:List of solar car teams 7655:Space-based solar power 7635:Constant voltage method 7564:Solar charge controller 7450:Timeline of solar cells 7445:Growth of photovoltaics 6150:Daniel J.Aiken (2000). 5999:N.V.Yastrebova (2007). 5829:Dimroth, Frank (2016). 5793:. Springer. p. 65. 5671:Renewable energy portal 5089:Indium gallium arsenide 5035:indium gallium arsenide 926:Anti-reflective coating 567:metamorphic solar cells 519:anti-reflective coating 424:Shockley–Queisser limit 415:Shockley–Queisser limit 7917:Formula Sun Grand Prix 7749:Solar-powered fountain 7692:Solar air conditioning 7493:Quantum dot solar cell 7483:Nanocrystal solar cell 7378:Sun-free photovoltaics 7064:. Technologyreview.com 6870:10.1126/sciadv.abb0055 5920:"ZTJ Space Solar Cell" 5572: 5342:emerging photovoltaics 5124:Indium gallium nitride 4900: 4739: 4578: 4494: 4385: 4321: 4221: 4045: 3931: 3817: 3683: 3509: 3341: 3218:is Planck's constant ( 3165: 2971: 2935: 2915: 2869: 2854: 2804: 2744: 2661: 2632: 2590: 2304: 2147: 2120: 2079: 2052: 2022: 1790: 1719: 1689: 1662: 1632: 1409: 1369: 1278: 1247: 1108: 1035: 669:molecular beam epitaxy 619:for the top sub-cell ( 526: 508:transparent conductors 419: 189: 80:. The use of multiple 47: 8311:Semiconductor devices 7907:World Solar Challenge 7730:Photovoltaic keyboard 7660:PV system performance 7533:Perovskite solar cell 7331:Solar cell efficiency 7183:John Wiley & Sons 6917:Nature Sustainability 6225:U.S. patent 5,679,963 5569:solar cell efficiency 5563: 5550:(see the table above) 5522:Multi-junction cells 5446:Thin film solar cells 5338:thin film solar cells 4901: 4740: 4579: 4495: 4386: 4322: 4222: 4046: 3932: 3818: 3684: 3482: 3342: 3166: 2972: 2936: 2895: 2870: 2834: 2805: 2745: 2662: 2633: 2591: 2305: 2148: 2121: 2080: 2078:{\displaystyle T^{+}} 2053: 2051:{\displaystyle T^{-}} 2031:Here, the parameters 2023: 1791: 1720: 1690: 1663: 1633: 1403: 1370: 1279: 1277:{\displaystyle J_{P}} 1248: 1117:electrical resistance 1103:Figure D: Layers and 1102: 1036: 532:thin film solar cells 516: 412: 340:characteristics of a 141: 134:Basics of solar cells 119:thin-film solar cells 108:power-to-weight ratio 30: 8177:Individual producers 7885:Solar vehicle racing 7574:Solar micro-inverter 7503:Plasmonic solar cell 7348:Thin-film solar cell 7316:Photoelectric effect 6199:(18–19): 3068–3077. 6019:Green, M.A. (2003). 5554:thin film solar cell 4756: 4602: 4506: 4399: 4348: 4242: 4141: 3977: 3829: 3746: 3385: 3260: 2984: 2949: 2879: 2825: 2765: 2674: 2642: 2603: 2414: 2157: 2130: 2089: 2062: 2035: 1808: 1729: 1699: 1672: 1645: 1489: 1296: 1261: 1135: 1115:is to provide a low 985: 548:III–V semiconductors 485:Multi-junction cells 447:photoelectric effect 146:illustration of the 78:wavelengths of light 7773:Solar traffic light 7753:Solar-powered radio 7720:Solar-powered watch 7528:Printed solar panel 7363:Solar cell research 7139:2004AcAau..54...83C 6831:2005SoEn...79...78Y 6748:2008SuMi...43....1Y 6705:2013MMTA...44.1947M 6658:2007NatMa...6..951K 6535:1979JPhD...12..441P 6492:1980JPhD...13..839D 6457:1961JAP....32..510S 6422:1980JAP....51.4494H 6348:2009SoEn...83.1588P 6106:2006Vacuu..80.1090M 6079:www.superstrate.net 6023:. Springer-Verlag. 5768:2016SoEn..130..139R 5735:. Dutch Space. 2007 5733:"Dawn Solar Arrays" 5613:bandgap engineering 5392:Crystalline silicon 5334:crystalline silicon 5272:). If its value is 5216:Spectral variations 5146:III–V semiconductor 5021:Germanium substrate 3894: 3438: 3351:× λ /(1.998×10 ) = 3226:is speed of light ( 2818:Similarly, because 2534: 2262: 2215: 2183: 2115: 1985: 1746: 1595: 1020: 905:Structural elements 596:spectral irradiance 431:blackbody radiation 290:and a photocurrent 170:are accelerated by 148:photovoltaic effect 96:crystalline silicon 7809:The Quiet Achiever 7768:Solar street light 7715:Solar-powered pump 7488:Organic solar cell 7368:Thermophotovoltaic 7336:Quantum efficiency 7046:2008-09-17 at the 7023:Michael Kanellos, 6591:. Spectrolab. 2009 5944:2011-08-22 at the 5925:2011-09-28 at the 5608:become practical. 5573: 4977:for the top-cell. 4896: 4735: 4574: 4490: 4381: 4317: 4217: 4041: 3927: 3880: 3813: 3679: 3417: 3337: 3214:is photon energy, 3161: 2967: 2931: 2865: 2800: 2740: 2657: 2628: 2586: 2517: 2300: 2248: 2201: 2160: 2143: 2116: 2092: 2075: 2048: 2018: 1962: 1786: 1732: 1715: 1685: 1658: 1628: 1581: 1470:J-V characteristic 1410: 1365: 1274: 1243: 1120:Consequently, the 1109: 1031: 1001: 527: 420: 203:with a particular 190: 48: 8306:Energy conversion 8288: 8287: 8252: 8251: 8147: 8146: 7960: 7959: 7835:Mauro Solar Riser 7830:Electric aircraft 7763:Solar-powered fan 7668: 7667: 7559:Balance of system 7547:System components 7498:Hybrid solar cell 7458: 7457: 7419:Cadmium telluride 7192:978-0-471-49196-5 7162:, pp. 414 ff 7112:,514962, pp. 1-7. 7031:, 6 December 2006 7014:, pp. 449 ff 6790:978-0-7803-1460-3 6465:10.1063/1.1736034 6100:(10): 1090–1097. 6055:978-3-540-40137-7 6030:978-3-540-26562-7 5546: 5545: 5451:Amorphous silicon 5056:eV), and Ge (0.66 4877: 4865: 4826: 4822: 4779: 4766: 4723: 4707: 4703: 4671: 4652: 4649: 4638: 4628: 4612: 4571: 4567: 4535: 4516: 4482: 4470: 4428: 4412: 4372: 4310: 4306: 4268: 4255: 4210: 4198: 4160: 4101:The second term, 4034: 4022: 3924: 3887: 3806: 3794: 3756: 3652: 3637: 3594: 3579: 3559: 3500: 3467: 3452: 3429: 3395: 3334: 3333: 3311: 3308: 3291: 3276: 3155: 3135: 3113: 3090: 3072: 3047: 2960: 2924: 2889: 2507: 2494: 2453: 2255: 2208: 2170: 2140: 2102: 2013: 2010: 1972: 1949: 1935: 1893: 1871: 1852: 1839: 1825: 1712: 1682: 1655: 1623: 1620: 1568: 1554: 1533: 1520: 1506: 1348: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1225: 1213: 1200: 1188: 1145: 1111:The main goal of 1028: 1018: 1008: 995: 981:), there must be 910:Metallic contacts 902: 901: 536:amorphous silicon 332:characteristics ( 123:amorphous silicon 106:where their high 16:(Redirected from 8318: 8276: 8275: 8264: 8263: 8158: 7999:Building-mounted 7977:PV power station 7973: 7902:Solar challenges 7892:Solar car racing 7860:Solar Challenger 7850:Gossamer Penguin 7677: 7471: 7321:Solar irradiance 7301: 7283: 7276: 7269: 7260: 7252:R&D Magazine 7247: 7241: 7237: 7235: 7227: 7218: 7216: 7196: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7150: 7122: 7116: 7106: 7100: 7099: 7079: 7073: 7072: 7070: 7069: 7057: 7051: 7038: 7032: 7021: 7015: 7009: 7003: 7002:, pp. 61 ff 6997: 6991: 6990: 6978: 6968: 6958: 6949: 6948: 6914: 6906: 6900: 6899: 6889: 6864:(31): eabb0055. 6858:Science Advances 6849: 6843: 6842: 6814: 6803: 6802: 6766: 6760: 6759: 6731: 6725: 6724: 6699:(4): 1947–1954. 6684: 6678: 6677: 6666:10.1038/nmat2037 6646:Nature Materials 6641: 6635: 6634: 6623:10.1002/pip.2267 6606: 6600: 6599: 6597: 6596: 6585: 6579: 6578: 6576: 6575: 6561: 6555: 6554: 6518: 6512: 6511: 6475: 6469: 6468: 6440: 6434: 6433: 6430:10.1063/1.328272 6405: 6399: 6398: 6381:(5): 1176–1180. 6366: 6360: 6359: 6342:(9): 1588–1598. 6331: 6325: 6324: 6306: 6297:(6): 1701–1711. 6286: 6277: 6276:, p. 390 ff 6271: 6254: 6253: 6251: 6245:. Archived from 6244: 6235: 6229: 6227: 6220: 6209: 6208: 6188: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6173:. Archived from 6156: 6147: 6141: 6140: 6131:. 69–70: 81–86. 6124: 6118: 6117: 6089: 6083: 6082: 6071: 6060: 6059: 6041: 6035: 6034: 6016: 6010: 6009: 6007: 5996: 5985: 5979: 5973: 5970: 5961: 5955: 5949: 5936: 5930: 5917: 5911: 5910: 5908: 5907: 5896: 5890: 5889: 5877: 5871: 5865: 5859: 5858: 5826: 5820: 5819: 5817: 5816: 5801: 5795: 5794: 5786: 5780: 5779: 5751: 5745: 5744: 5742: 5740: 5729: 5687: 5682: 5681: 5673: 5668: 5667: 5648: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5582: 5347: 5298: 5290: 5286: 5181: 5102: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5073:Indium phosphide 5059: 5055: 5031:gallium arsenide 5016: 5008: 4971:gallium arsenide 4959: 4955: 4951: 4939: 4905: 4903: 4902: 4897: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4868: 4867: 4866: 4863: 4853: 4831: 4827: 4825: 4824: 4823: 4820: 4807: 4781: 4780: 4777: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4744: 4742: 4741: 4736: 4725: 4724: 4721: 4708: 4706: 4705: 4704: 4701: 4692: 4674: 4673: 4672: 4669: 4659: 4653: 4651: 4650: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4639: 4636: 4630: 4629: 4626: 4619: 4614: 4613: 4610: 4583: 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2256: 2253: 2241: 2240: 2220: 2216: 2214: 2209: 2206: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2171: 2163: 2152: 2150: 2149: 2144: 2142: 2141: 2138: 2125: 2123: 2122: 2117: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2103: 2095: 2084: 2082: 2081: 2076: 2074: 2073: 2057: 2055: 2054: 2049: 2047: 2046: 2027: 2025: 2024: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2011: 2009: 2001: 1993: 1991: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1973: 1965: 1958: 1957: 1952: 1951: 1950: 1947: 1936: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1895: 1894: 1891: 1882: 1881: 1872: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1854: 1853: 1850: 1841: 1840: 1837: 1826: 1818: 1795: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1785: 1784: 1783: 1767: 1766: 1765: 1745: 1740: 1724: 1722: 1721: 1716: 1714: 1713: 1710: 1694: 1692: 1691: 1686: 1684: 1683: 1680: 1667: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1657: 1656: 1653: 1637: 1635: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1622: 1621: 1619: 1611: 1603: 1601: 1594: 1589: 1577: 1576: 1571: 1570: 1569: 1566: 1555: 1547: 1545: 1540: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1531: 1522: 1521: 1518: 1507: 1499: 1465: 1374: 1372: 1371: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1353: 1349: 1347: 1339: 1331: 1314: 1313: 1283: 1281: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1272: 1252: 1250: 1249: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1237: 1236: 1233: 1227: 1226: 1223: 1216: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1202: 1201: 1198: 1191: 1189: 1184: 1174: 1173: 1154: 1152: 1147: 1146: 1143: 1113:tunnel junctions 1095:Tunnel junctions 1040: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1019: 1011: 1009: 1006: 997: 996: 993: 980: 979: 978: 964: 963: 962: 709: 707: 678: 659: 644: 629: 501: 497: 392: 382: 42: 21: 8326: 8325: 8321: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8316: 8315: 8291: 8290: 8289: 8284: 8248: 8172: 8143: 8025: 7994: 7967: 7956: 7880: 7869:Water transport 7864: 7818: 7804:Solar golf cart 7777: 7735:Solar road stud 7664: 7618:System concepts 7613: 7542: 7465: 7454: 7433: 7387: 7292: 7287: 7238: 7228: 7214: 7212: 7201: 7193: 7174: 7171: 7169:Further reading 7166: 7158: 7154: 7124: 7123: 7119: 7107: 7103: 7081: 7080: 7076: 7067: 7065: 7059: 7058: 7054: 7048:Wayback Machine 7039: 7035: 7022: 7018: 7010: 7006: 6998: 6994: 6987: 6966: 6960: 6959: 6952: 6908: 6907: 6903: 6851: 6850: 6846: 6816: 6815: 6806: 6791: 6768: 6767: 6763: 6733: 6732: 6728: 6686: 6685: 6681: 6652:(12): 951–956. 6643: 6642: 6638: 6608: 6607: 6603: 6594: 6592: 6587: 6586: 6582: 6573: 6571: 6563: 6562: 6558: 6520: 6519: 6515: 6477: 6476: 6472: 6442: 6441: 6437: 6407: 6406: 6402: 6368: 6367: 6363: 6333: 6332: 6328: 6288: 6287: 6280: 6272: 6257: 6249: 6242: 6237: 6236: 6232: 6223: 6221: 6212: 6190: 6189: 6185: 6177: 6154: 6149: 6148: 6144: 6126: 6125: 6121: 6091: 6090: 6086: 6073: 6072: 6063: 6056: 6043: 6042: 6038: 6031: 6018: 6017: 6013: 6005: 5998: 5997: 5988: 5980: 5976: 5971: 5964: 5956: 5952: 5946:Wayback Machine 5937: 5933: 5927:Wayback Machine 5918: 5914: 5905: 5903: 5898: 5897: 5893: 5879: 5878: 5874: 5866: 5862: 5828: 5827: 5823: 5814: 5812: 5803: 5802: 5798: 5788: 5787: 5783: 5753: 5752: 5748: 5738: 5736: 5731: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5683: 5676: 5669: 5662: 5659: 5646: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5606:MJ solar panels 5601: 5580: 5398:Monocrystalline 5373: 5364: 5330: 5310: 5296: 5288: 5284: 5257: 5251: 5239: 5233: 5218: 5188: 5179: 5169: 5162: 5142: 5137: 5121: 5113:dichroic filter 5100: 5098: 5094: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5070: 5057: 5053: 5048: 5044: 5023: 5014: 5009:eV. The lower 5006: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4989:in the range In 4983: 4976: 4966: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4943: 4940: 4929: 4922: 4915: 4869: 4858: 4854: 4845: 4841: 4815: 4811: 4802: 4795: 4791: 4772: 4759: 4754: 4753: 4716: 4696: 4675: 4664: 4660: 4642: 4631: 4621: 4620: 4605: 4600: 4599: 4593: 4560: 4539: 4528: 4524: 4509: 4504: 4503: 4474: 4463: 4459: 4450: 4446: 4421: 4405: 4397: 4396: 4364: 4353: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4336: 4299: 4295: 4286: 4261: 4248: 4240: 4239: 4202: 4191: 4181: 4175: 4153: 4139: 4138: 4132: 4123: 4121: 4114: 4107: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4068: 4061: 4026: 4015: 4011: 4005: 3980: 3975: 3974: 3964: 3957: 3946: 3913: 3903: 3902: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3840: 3827: 3826: 3798: 3787: 3777: 3771: 3749: 3744: 3743: 3737: 3728: 3718: 3710: 3705: 3702: 3660: 3641: 3630: 3626: 3602: 3583: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3538: 3516: 3493: 3456: 3445: 3441: 3422: 3401: 3388: 3383: 3382: 3372: 3369: 3322: 3301: 3280: 3269: 3265: 3258: 3257: 3243: 3213: 3190: 3177: 3142: 3127: 3121: 3102: 3082: 3064: 3039: 3028: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3013: 3000: 2987: 2982: 2981: 2952: 2947: 2946: 2916: 2882: 2877: 2876: 2855: 2823: 2822: 2788: 2768: 2763: 2762: 2755: 2728: 2708: 2680: 2672: 2671: 2640: 2639: 2609: 2601: 2600: 2560: 2538: 2499: 2474: 2470: 2445: 2444: 2420: 2412: 2411: 2402: 2389: 2379: 2372: 2365: 2351: 2341: 2334: 2327: 2320: 2284: 2263: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2191: 2187: 2155: 2154: 2133: 2128: 2127: 2087: 2086: 2065: 2060: 2059: 2038: 2033: 2032: 2002: 1994: 1986: 1942: 1937: 1910: 1903: 1899: 1886: 1873: 1845: 1832: 1831: 1827: 1806: 1805: 1768: 1750: 1727: 1726: 1705: 1697: 1696: 1675: 1670: 1669: 1648: 1643: 1642: 1612: 1604: 1596: 1561: 1556: 1526: 1513: 1512: 1508: 1487: 1486: 1472: 1463: 1457: 1450: 1443: 1436: 1428: 1398: 1391: 1384: 1340: 1332: 1326: 1319: 1315: 1305: 1294: 1293: 1264: 1259: 1258: 1228: 1218: 1217: 1206: 1193: 1192: 1165: 1155: 1138: 1133: 1132: 1097: 1081: 1074: 1070: 1064: 1057: 1053: 1047: 1021: 988: 983: 982: 977: 974: 973: 972: 970: 968: 961: 958: 957: 956: 954: 952: 931:Anti-reflective 928: 912: 907: 742: 735: 730: 725: 724: 717: 716: 705: 703: 702: 701:Absorption, at 697: 690: 689: 657: 655: 642: 640: 627: 625: 611: 593: 582: 556: 554:Material choice 499: 495: 487: 445:created by the 407: 405:Loss mechanisms 390: 384: 377: 375: 368: 361: 350: 324: 317: 310: 303: 296: 281: 274: 267: 256: 246: 235: 210: 187: 176: 160:conduction band 136: 131: 51: 40: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8324: 8322: 8314: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8293: 8292: 8286: 8285: 8283: 8282: 8270: 8257: 8254: 8253: 8250: 8249: 8247: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8216: 8214:Solar Frontier 8211: 8206: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8189:Hanwha Q CELLS 8186: 8180: 8178: 8174: 8173: 8171: 8170: 8164: 8162: 8155: 8149: 8148: 8145: 8144: 8142: 8141: 8136: 8134:United Kingdom 8131: 8126: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8069:Czech Republic 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8035: 8033: 8027: 8026: 8024: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8002: 8000: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7992: 7987: 7981: 7979: 7970: 7962: 7961: 7958: 7957: 7955: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7888: 7886: 7882: 7881: 7879: 7878: 7872: 7870: 7866: 7865: 7863: 7862: 7857: 7855:Qinetiq Zephyr 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7826: 7824: 7820: 7819: 7817: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7785: 7783: 7782:Land transport 7779: 7778: 7776: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7709: 7707:Solar backpack 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7683: 7681: 7674: 7670: 7669: 7666: 7665: 7663: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7621: 7619: 7615: 7614: 7612: 7611: 7609:Synchronverter 7606: 7601: 7599:Solar shingles 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7569:Solar inverter 7566: 7561: 7556: 7550: 7548: 7544: 7543: 7541: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7479: 7477: 7468: 7460: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7453: 7452: 7447: 7441: 7439: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7388: 7386: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7339: 7338: 7328: 7326:Solar constant 7323: 7318: 7313: 7307: 7305: 7298: 7294: 7293: 7288: 7286: 7285: 7278: 7271: 7263: 7257: 7256: 7198: 7197: 7191: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7164: 7152: 7117: 7101: 7090:(1–3): 78–85. 7074: 7052: 7033: 7016: 7004: 6992: 6985: 6950: 6923:(9): 821–829. 6901: 6844: 6804: 6789: 6761: 6726: 6679: 6636: 6601: 6580: 6556: 6529:(3): 441–450. 6513: 6486:(5): 839–846. 6470: 6435: 6400: 6361: 6326: 6278: 6255: 6252:on 2009-11-17. 6230: 6210: 6183: 6180:on 2011-07-21. 6165:(6): 563–570. 6142: 6119: 6084: 6075:"Tandem cells" 6061: 6054: 6036: 6029: 6011: 5986: 5974: 5962: 5950: 5931: 5912: 5891: 5872: 5860: 5821: 5796: 5781: 5746: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5717: 5716: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5689: 5688: 5674: 5658: 5655: 5600: 5597: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5535: 5532: 5529: 5526: 5523: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5510: 5507: 5504: 5501: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5486: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5462: 5459: 5456: 5453: 5448: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5433: 5430: 5427: 5424: 5418: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5395: 5388: 5387: 5384: 5378: 5375: 5371: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5354: 5351: 5336:(c-Si) cells, 5329: 5326: 5309: 5306: 5270:solar constant 5261:Fresnel lenses 5250: 5247: 5237: 5228: 5217: 5214: 5186: 5167: 5160: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5128:direct bandgap 5120: 5117: 5096: 5092: 5069: 5066: 5046: 5042: 5022: 5019: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4982: 4979: 4974: 4965: 4962: 4945: 4944: 4941: 4934: 4927: 4920: 4913: 4907: 4906: 4893: 4889: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4872: 4861: 4857: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4837: 4834: 4830: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4805: 4801: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4787: 4784: 4775: 4771: 4762: 4746: 4745: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4719: 4715: 4712: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4684: 4681: 4678: 4667: 4663: 4657: 4645: 4634: 4624: 4617: 4608: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4548: 4545: 4542: 4531: 4527: 4521: 4512: 4500: 4487: 4480: 4477: 4466: 4462: 4456: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4442: 4439: 4436: 4433: 4424: 4420: 4417: 4408: 4404: 4380: 4377: 4370: 4367: 4362: 4359: 4356: 4341: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4314: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4276: 4273: 4264: 4260: 4251: 4247: 4228: 4227: 4214: 4208: 4205: 4194: 4190: 4187: 4184: 4178: 4174: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4156: 4152: 4149: 4146: 4130: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4066: 4059: 4052: 4051: 4038: 4032: 4029: 4018: 4014: 4008: 4004: 4001: 3998: 3995: 3990: 3987: 3983: 3962: 3955: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3906: 3900: 3897: 3892: 3883: 3878: 3874: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3850: 3846: 3843: 3837: 3834: 3823: 3810: 3804: 3801: 3790: 3786: 3783: 3780: 3774: 3770: 3767: 3764: 3761: 3752: 3735: 3726: 3707: 3706: 3703: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3656: 3650: 3647: 3644: 3633: 3629: 3623: 3620: 3615: 3612: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3598: 3592: 3589: 3586: 3575: 3571: 3564: 3558: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3534: 3529: 3526: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3512: 3507: 3496: 3492: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3465: 3462: 3459: 3448: 3444: 3436: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3413: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3391: 3374: 3373: 3370: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3332: 3328: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3289: 3286: 3283: 3272: 3268: 3241: 3230:= 2.998×10 ), 3222:= 6.626×10 ), 3211: 3205: 3204: 3188: 3176: 3173: 3172: 3171: 3159: 3152: 3149: 3145: 3139: 3130: 3124: 3120: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3105: 3099: 3094: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3052: 3045: 3042: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3021: 3016: 3010: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2964: 2955: 2945:The values of 2943: 2942: 2928: 2919: 2913: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2885: 2862: 2858: 2852: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2830: 2816: 2815: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2784: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2771: 2753: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2692: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2656: 2653: 2650: 2647: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2597: 2596: 2585: 2582: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2511: 2502: 2498: 2492: 2489: 2486: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2457: 2448: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2398: 2385: 2377: 2370: 2363: 2346: 2339: 2332: 2325: 2318: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2282: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2266: 2260: 2251: 2247: 2244: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2213: 2204: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2169: 2166: 2136: 2113: 2108: 2101: 2098: 2072: 2068: 2045: 2041: 2029: 2028: 2017: 2008: 2005: 2000: 1997: 1990: 1983: 1978: 1971: 1968: 1961: 1956: 1945: 1941: 1934: 1931: 1923: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1870: 1867: 1862: 1858: 1848: 1844: 1835: 1830: 1824: 1821: 1816: 1813: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1771: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1735: 1708: 1704: 1678: 1651: 1639: 1638: 1627: 1618: 1615: 1610: 1607: 1600: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1575: 1564: 1560: 1553: 1550: 1543: 1539: 1529: 1525: 1516: 1511: 1505: 1502: 1497: 1494: 1471: 1468: 1455: 1448: 1441: 1434: 1426: 1422:electric field 1418:heterojunction 1397: 1394: 1389: 1382: 1376: 1375: 1363: 1359: 1356: 1352: 1346: 1343: 1338: 1335: 1329: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1301: 1271: 1267: 1254: 1253: 1231: 1221: 1209: 1205: 1196: 1187: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1150: 1141: 1096: 1093: 1079: 1072: 1068: 1062: 1055: 1051: 1045: 1024: 1017: 1014: 1004: 1000: 991: 975: 966: 959: 950: 927: 924: 911: 908: 906: 903: 900: 899: 896: 893: 890: 887: 884: 881: 878: 875: 869: 868: 865: 862: 859: 856: 853: 850: 847: 844: 838: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 819: 816: 813: 807: 806: 803: 800: 797: 794: 791: 788: 785: 782: 776: 775: 772: 769: 766: 763: 760: 757: 754: 751: 745: 744: 737: 732: 727: 722: 719: 714: 711: 699: 692: 687: 682: 653: 638: 623: 609: 591: 580: 555: 552: 486: 483: 451:electron holes 406: 403: 397:of the power | 395:absolute value 388: 373: 366: 359: 348: 322: 315: 308: 301: 294: 286:, a potential 279: 272: 265: 254: 244: 233: 208: 185: 174: 135: 132: 130: 127: 68:with multiple 54:Multi-junction 49: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8323: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8298: 8296: 8281: 8280: 8271: 8269: 8268: 8259: 8258: 8255: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8237: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8227: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8181: 8179: 8175: 8169: 8166: 8165: 8163: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8150: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8036: 8034: 8032: 8028: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8003: 8001: 7997: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7982: 7980: 7978: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7963: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7889: 7887: 7883: 7877: 7874: 7873: 7871: 7867: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7827: 7825: 7823:Air transport 7821: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7799:Solar roadway 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7789:Solar vehicle 7787: 7786: 7784: 7780: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7702:Solar charger 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7684: 7682: 7678: 7675: 7671: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7622: 7620: 7616: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7594:Solar tracker 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7551: 7549: 7545: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7480: 7478: 7476: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7461: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7442: 7440: 7436: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7396: 7394: 7390: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7337: 7334: 7333: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7311:Photovoltaics 7309: 7308: 7306: 7302: 7299: 7295: 7291: 7290:Photovoltaics 7284: 7279: 7277: 7272: 7270: 7265: 7264: 7261: 7254: 7253: 7250:reprinted in 7245: 7233: 7226: 7224: 7211: 7207: 7206: 7200: 7199: 7194: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7179: 7173: 7172: 7168: 7161: 7156: 7153: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7133:(2): 83–101. 7132: 7128: 7121: 7118: 7115: 7111: 7105: 7102: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7078: 7075: 7063: 7056: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7042: 7037: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7020: 7017: 7013: 7008: 7005: 7001: 6996: 6993: 6988: 6986:9784990181604 6982: 6977: 6972: 6965: 6964: 6957: 6955: 6951: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6913: 6905: 6902: 6897: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6848: 6845: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6813: 6811: 6809: 6805: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6773: 6765: 6762: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6730: 6727: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6683: 6680: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6640: 6637: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6617:(5): 606–14. 6616: 6612: 6605: 6602: 6590: 6584: 6581: 6570: 6566: 6560: 6557: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6517: 6514: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6474: 6471: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6439: 6436: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6404: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6365: 6362: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6330: 6327: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6285: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6270: 6268: 6266: 6264: 6262: 6260: 6256: 6248: 6241: 6234: 6231: 6226: 6219: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6187: 6184: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6153: 6146: 6143: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6123: 6120: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6088: 6085: 6080: 6076: 6070: 6068: 6066: 6062: 6057: 6051: 6047: 6040: 6037: 6032: 6026: 6022: 6015: 6012: 6004: 6003: 5995: 5993: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5978: 5975: 5969: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5954: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5940: 5935: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5921: 5916: 5913: 5901: 5895: 5892: 5887: 5886:CleanTechnica 5883: 5876: 5873: 5869: 5864: 5861: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5836: 5832: 5825: 5822: 5810: 5806: 5800: 5797: 5792: 5785: 5782: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5750: 5747: 5734: 5728: 5725: 5719: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5690: 5686: 5685:Energy portal 5680: 5675: 5672: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5654: 5652: 5643: 5627: 5625: 5620: 5618: 5617:microclimates 5614: 5609: 5607: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5584: 5576: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5555: 5551: 5542: 5539: 5536: 5533: 5530: 5527: 5524: 5521: 5520: 5517: 5514: 5511: 5508: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5493: 5490: 5487: 5484: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5472: 5469: 5466: 5463: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5443: 5440: 5437: 5434: 5431: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5416: 5413: 5410: 5407: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5382: 5379: 5376: 5370: 5367: 5361: 5358: 5355: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5327: 5325: 5321: 5319: 5315: 5307: 5305: 5303: 5302:solar tracker 5293: 5281: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5266: 5262: 5256: 5248: 5246: 5244: 5240: 5232: 5227: 5223: 5215: 5213: 5211: 5206: 5204: 5198: 5196: 5190: 5185: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5139: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5125: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5108: 5106: 5090: 5074: 5067: 5065: 5061: 5050: 5040: 5037:(InGaAs) and 5036: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5018: 5012: 4988: 4980: 4978: 4972: 4963: 4961: 4938: 4933: 4931: 4926: 4919: 4912: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4880: 4873: 4870: 4859: 4855: 4849: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4835: 4832: 4828: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4799: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4785: 4782: 4773: 4769: 4760: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4732: 4729: 4726: 4717: 4713: 4710: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4682: 4679: 4676: 4665: 4661: 4655: 4643: 4632: 4622: 4615: 4606: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4590: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4546: 4543: 4540: 4529: 4525: 4519: 4510: 4501: 4485: 4478: 4475: 4464: 4460: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4440: 4437: 4434: 4431: 4422: 4418: 4415: 4406: 4402: 4394: 4393: 4392: 4378: 4375: 4368: 4365: 4360: 4357: 4354: 4340: 4333: 4312: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4283: 4280: 4277: 4274: 4271: 4262: 4258: 4249: 4245: 4237: 4236: 4235: 4233: 4212: 4206: 4203: 4192: 4188: 4185: 4182: 4176: 4172: 4169: 4166: 4163: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4144: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4118: 4111: 4104: 4094: 4087: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4071: 4070: 4065: 4058: 4036: 4030: 4027: 4016: 4012: 4006: 4002: 3999: 3996: 3993: 3988: 3985: 3981: 3972: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3961: 3954: 3950: 3943: 3918: 3914: 3908: 3904: 3898: 3895: 3890: 3881: 3876: 3872: 3869: 3864: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3848: 3844: 3841: 3835: 3832: 3824: 3808: 3802: 3799: 3788: 3784: 3781: 3778: 3772: 3768: 3765: 3762: 3759: 3750: 3741: 3740: 3739: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3716: 3700: 3695: 3693: 3674: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3648: 3645: 3642: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3613: 3610: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3590: 3587: 3584: 3573: 3569: 3562: 3556: 3553: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3532: 3527: 3524: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3494: 3490: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3476: 3473: 3470: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3446: 3442: 3423: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3389: 3380: 3379: 3378: 3367: 3362: 3360: 3354: 3350: 3330: 3326: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3287: 3284: 3281: 3270: 3266: 3255: 3254: 3253: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3235: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3210: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3187: 3183: 3182: 3181: 3174: 3157: 3150: 3147: 3143: 3137: 3128: 3122: 3118: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3103: 3097: 3092: 3083: 3074: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3050: 3043: 3040: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3019: 3014: 3008: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2992: 2988: 2980: 2979: 2978: 2962: 2953: 2926: 2917: 2911: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2883: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2828: 2821: 2820: 2819: 2813: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2776: 2773: 2769: 2760: 2756: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2693: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2670: 2669: 2668: 2651: 2645: 2622: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2599:The value of 2583: 2580: 2573: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2500: 2487: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2463: 2455: 2446: 2439: 2433: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2410: 2409: 2408: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2376: 2369: 2362: 2357: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2338: 2331: 2324: 2317: 2311: 2295: 2292: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2264: 2258: 2249: 2245: 2242: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2211: 2202: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2164: 2134: 2111: 2106: 2096: 2070: 2066: 2043: 2039: 2015: 2006: 2003: 1998: 1995: 1981: 1976: 1966: 1959: 1954: 1943: 1932: 1929: 1921: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1887: 1878: 1874: 1868: 1865: 1860: 1856: 1846: 1842: 1833: 1828: 1822: 1819: 1814: 1811: 1804: 1803: 1802: 1800: 1780: 1777: 1774: 1769: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1733: 1706: 1676: 1649: 1625: 1616: 1613: 1608: 1605: 1591: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1562: 1551: 1548: 1541: 1537: 1527: 1523: 1514: 1509: 1503: 1500: 1495: 1492: 1485: 1484: 1483: 1481: 1477: 1469: 1467: 1461: 1454: 1447: 1440: 1433: 1429: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1407: 1402: 1395: 1393: 1388: 1381: 1361: 1357: 1354: 1350: 1344: 1341: 1336: 1333: 1327: 1323: 1320: 1316: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1299: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1287: 1269: 1265: 1229: 1219: 1207: 1203: 1194: 1185: 1178: 1175: 1170: 1166: 1159: 1156: 1148: 1139: 1131: 1130: 1129: 1127: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1106: 1101: 1094: 1092: 1090: 1086: 1078: 1067: 1061: 1050: 1044: 1022: 1015: 1012: 1002: 998: 989: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 925: 923: 921: 917: 909: 904: 897: 894: 891: 888: 885: 882: 879: 876: 874: 871: 870: 866: 863: 860: 857: 854: 851: 848: 845: 843: 840: 839: 835: 832: 829: 826: 823: 820: 817: 814: 812: 809: 808: 804: 801: 798: 795: 792: 789: 786: 783: 781: 778: 777: 773: 770: 767: 764: 761: 758: 755: 752: 750: 747: 746: 741: 738: 733: 728: 720: 712: 700: 696: 693: 686: 683: 680: 679: 676: 674: 670: 666: 661: 652: 648: 637: 633: 622: 618: 613: 606: 604: 600: 597: 590: 586: 579: 575: 570: 568: 564: 559: 553: 551: 549: 543: 541: 538:solar cells, 537: 533: 524: 520: 515: 511: 509: 503: 491: 484: 482: 479: 473: 469: 466: 461: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 435:absolute zero 432: 427: 425: 416: 411: 404: 402: 400: 396: 387: 380: 372: 365: 358: 354: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 326: 321: 314: 307: 300: 293: 289: 285: 278: 271: 264: 260: 253: 250: 243: 239: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 206: 202: 198: 195: 184: 180: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 140: 133: 128: 126: 124: 120: 115: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 92: 90: 85: 83: 79: 75: 71: 70:p–n junctions 67: 63: 59: 55: 46: 39: 38: 33: 29: 19: 8278: 8265: 8244:Yingli Solar 8224:Sungen Solar 8199:Motech Solar 8153:PV companies 8114:South Africa 7932:Solar Splash 7673:Applications 7604:Solar mirror 7464:Photovoltaic 7352: 7251: 7220: 7213:. Retrieved 7204: 7177: 7155: 7130: 7126: 7120: 7109: 7104: 7087: 7084:Desalination 7083: 7077: 7066:. Retrieved 7055: 7036: 7028: 7019: 7007: 6995: 6962: 6920: 6916: 6904: 6861: 6857: 6847: 6825:(1): 78–85. 6822: 6819:Solar Energy 6818: 6771: 6764: 6739: 6735: 6729: 6696: 6692: 6682: 6649: 6645: 6639: 6614: 6610: 6604: 6593:. Retrieved 6583: 6572:. Retrieved 6568: 6559: 6526: 6522: 6516: 6483: 6479: 6473: 6448: 6444: 6438: 6413: 6409: 6403: 6378: 6374: 6364: 6339: 6336:Solar Energy 6335: 6329: 6294: 6290: 6247:the original 6233: 6196: 6192: 6186: 6175:the original 6162: 6158: 6145: 6128: 6122: 6097: 6093: 6087: 6078: 6045: 6039: 6020: 6014: 6001: 5977: 5953: 5934: 5915: 5904:. Retrieved 5894: 5885: 5875: 5863: 5838: 5834: 5824: 5813:. Retrieved 5799: 5790: 5784: 5759: 5756:Solar Energy 5755: 5749: 5737:. Retrieved 5727: 5644: 5628: 5621: 5610: 5602: 5599:Applications 5592: 5588: 5585: 5577: 5574: 5549: 5547: 5380: 5368: 5359: 5331: 5322: 5311: 5294: 5282: 5277: 5273: 5258: 5242: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5221: 5219: 5207: 5202: 5199: 5194: 5191: 5183: 5172: 5164: 5157: 5143: 5122: 5109: 5071: 5062: 5051: 5024: 4997:P through In 4984: 4967: 4946: 4924: 4917: 4910: 4908: 4747: 4588: 4586: 4338: 4331: 4329: 4231: 4229: 4127: 4116: 4109: 4102: 4100: 4092: 4085: 4078: 4074: 4063: 4056: 4053: 3966: 3959: 3958:is given by 3952: 3948: 3941: 3939: 3732: 3731: 3723: 3714: 3708: 3691: 3375: 3358: 3355:λ × 5.03×10 3352: 3348: 3249: 3245: 3238: 3236: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3206: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3185: 3178: 2944: 2817: 2811: 2758: 2751: 2598: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2374: 2367: 2360: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2336: 2329: 2322: 2315: 2312: 2030: 1798: 1640: 1479: 1475: 1473: 1459: 1452: 1445: 1438: 1431: 1424: 1413: 1411: 1406:band diagram 1386: 1379: 1377: 1255: 1122:photovoltage 1110: 1105:band diagram 1088: 1076: 1065: 1059: 1048: 1042: 946: 942: 929: 913: 739: 694: 684: 662: 650: 635: 620: 614: 607: 598: 588: 584: 577: 571: 562: 560: 557: 544: 528: 504: 492: 488: 474: 470: 462: 455: 428: 421: 398: 385: 378: 370: 363: 356: 352: 345: 337: 333: 329: 327: 319: 312: 305: 298: 291: 287: 276: 269: 262: 259:photocurrent 251: 241: 230: 226: 218: 213: 201:p-n junction 191: 182: 179:photocurrent 171: 156:valence band 144:Band diagram 116: 93: 86: 61: 57: 53: 52: 36: 8301:Solar cells 8239:Trina Solar 8184:First Solar 8124:Switzerland 8104:Netherlands 7942:Tour de Sol 7640:Fill factor 7579:Solar cable 7554:Solar panel 7475:Solar cells 7240:|work= 7114:open access 6742:(1): 1–23. 6416:(8): 4494. 5960:, Uni-Solar 5870:. Cnet.com. 5841:: 343–349. 5762:: 139–147. 5637:eV and 1.42 5422:Polysilicon 5353:Technology 5350:Categories 5308:Fabrication 5148:materials. 5079:eV and 0.74 3717:ν < 0.31 1390:gMiddleCell 1085:ultraviolet 498:eV and 1.70 129:Description 66:solar cells 62:solar cells 45:solar cells 32:Black light 8295:Categories 8161:By country 8031:By country 7966:Generation 7876:Solar boat 7725:Solar Tuki 7711:Solar tree 7697:Solar lamp 7680:Appliances 7304:Technology 7068:2014-08-17 6595:2015-08-04 6574:2014-08-17 6451:(3): 510. 6304:2001.08553 5906:2016-11-15 5815:2023-03-28 5720:References 5713:Micromorph 5651:ionisation 5626:missions. 5624:Mars rover 5571:over time. 5316:, usually 5253:See also: 5210:Perovskite 5033:(GaAs) or 4069:, we have 916:electrodes 603:wavelength 142:Figure A. 89:efficiency 8039:Australia 8016:Solar Ark 7922:Solar Cup 7814:Sunmobile 7794:Solar car 7392:Materials 7242:ignored ( 7232:cite book 7029:CNET News 6976:2134/8216 6945:235630649 6937:2398-9629 6878:2375-2548 6799:136718230 6569:Azurspace 6551:250869484 6508:250782402 6321:210860788 5708:PIN diode 5567:graph of 5140:Structure 5039:germanium 5029:(InGaP), 4964:Materials 4839:⁡ 4800:⁡ 4783:− 4727:− 4444:⁡ 4432:− 4284:⁡ 4272:− 4189:− 4173:⁡ 4164:− 4013:− 4003:⁡ 3852:⁡ 3845:π 3785:− 3769:⁡ 3533:− 3506:∞ 3484:∑ 3435:∞ 3419:∫ 3331:λ 3119:⁡ 3098:≈ 3080:⇒ 3062:− 3051:− 2897:∑ 2836:∑ 2783:λ 2777:α 2774:− 2723:λ 2717:α 2714:− 2706:− 2694:λ 2652:λ 2646:α 2623:λ 2584:λ 2574:λ 2552:λ 2540:ϕ 2528:λ 2519:∫ 2497:⇒ 2488:λ 2476:ϕ 2464:λ 2434:λ 2168:~ 2100:~ 2044:− 1970:~ 1940:Δ 1908:− 1897:− 1884:Δ 1879:− 1703:Δ 1559:Δ 1542:− 1355:− 1324:⁡ 1176:− 1167:ϕ 1160:ϵ 969:(usually 898:100–1000 729:Hardness 718:(cm/V·s) 681:Material 647:Germanium 645:eV), and 626:= 1.8–1.9 540:Uni-Solar 449:meet the 443:electrons 207:energy, E 164:electrons 104:aerospace 8267:Category 8229:Sunpower 8219:Solyndra 8194:JA Solar 8129:Thailand 8049:Bulgaria 7297:Concepts 7044:Archived 6896:32789177 6721:13952749 6674:17965718 6631:93809051 6395:55197753 5942:Archived 5929:, emcore 5923:Archived 5855:47576267 5809:Archived 5739:July 18, 5657:See also 2342:) where 1456:gEmitter 1442:gEmitter 939:pyramids 920:aluminum 610:minority 587:/λ < 574:bandgaps 465:infrared 223:electron 221:, to an 181:, or by 72:made of 34:test of 8279:Commons 8234:Suntech 8109:Romania 8079:Germany 8044:Belgium 7968:systems 7438:History 7135:Bibcode 6887:7399695 6827:Bibcode 6744:Bibcode 6701:Bibcode 6654:Bibcode 6531:Bibcode 6488:Bibcode 6453:Bibcode 6418:Bibcode 6344:Bibcode 6102:Bibcode 5764:Bibcode 5287:m (as 1 2153:, then 1435:gWindow 1383:gTunnel 1286:voltage 965:) and L 880:0.5868 849:0.5657 818:0.5653 787:0.5451 774:0.1–60 756:0.5431 736:(μm/K) 731:(Mohs) 710:(1/μm) 704:λ = 0.8 673:crystal 284:charges 249:current 215:Photons 205:bandgap 197:silicon 158:to the 152:Photons 8084:Greece 8074:France 8054:Canada 7466:system 7215:10 Dec 7189: 6983: 6943: 6935: 6894: 6884: 6876: 6797: 6787: 6719: 6672: 6629: 6549: 6506: 6393: 6319: 6228:(1997) 6094:Vacuum 6052: 6027: 5948:, NREL 5853: 5647: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5581: 5485:0.029 5461:0.089 5429:0.615 5394:cells 5386:Ref's 5356:η (%) 5297: 5289: 5285: 5180: 5175:Indium 5168:tunnel 5161:tunnel 5154:InGaAs 5150:GaAsSb 5101: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5058: 5054: 5015: 5007: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4752:(13): 4598:(12): 4502:(11): 4395:(10): 4124: 3940:where 3719: 3711: 3207:where 2750:where 2321:= min( 1641:where 1464: 873:InGaAs 759:0.102 743:(m/s) 706: 658: 656:= 0.67 643: 632:InGaAs 628: 500: 496: 418:limit. 391:< 0 381:> 0 323:pscatt 316:nscatt 280:nscatt 273:pscatt 121:using 41:'s 8209:Sharp 8119:Spain 8099:Japan 8094:Italy 8089:India 8064:China 8059:Chile 6967:(PDF) 6941:S2CID 6795:S2CID 6717:S2CID 6627:S2CID 6547:S2CID 6504:S2CID 6391:S2CID 6317:S2CID 6299:arXiv 6250:(PDF) 6243:(PDF) 6178:(PDF) 6155:(PDF) 6006:(PDF) 5851:S2CID 5534:1.81 5528:40.7 5503:19.5 5482:0.86 5479:16.5 5458:0.63 5455:11.1 5432:8.35 5426:20.3 5402:24.7 5383:(μm) 5265:guide 5087:eV. 5047:0.985 5043:0.015 4238:(9): 4234:= 0. 4137:(8): 4122:≥ 0.3 4073:(7): 3973:(6): 3969:= 0. 3965:with 3825:(5): 3742:(4): 3381:(3): 3256:(2): 3184:(1): 1466:cm). 1451:> 1437:> 1385:> 1126:diode 1007:AlInP 895:5.66 886:1200 867:1000 858:1000 855:3900 846:0.65 824:8500 784:1.86 780:InGaP 762:1400 753:1.12 726:(μs) 698:(nm) 691:(eV) 641:= 1.4 630:eV), 617:InGaP 478:AM1.5 458:light 342:diode 266:scatt 245:drift 194:doped 186:scatt 175:drift 168:holes 7244:help 7217:2011 7187:ISBN 6981:ISBN 6933:ISSN 6892:PMID 6874:ISSN 6785:ISBN 6670:PMID 6050:ISBN 6025:ISBN 5741:2011 5615:for 5540:140 5537:476 5531:2.6 5499:CIGS 5475:CdTe 5438:200 5435:211 5414:100 5408:0.8 5405:0.5 5377:W/m 5374:(A) 5365:(V) 5178:1.96 5097:0.47 5093:0.53 5017:eV. 5011:GaAs 4960:eV. 4923:(or 2761:and 2394:and 2058:and 1851:SC,2 1838:SC,1 1681:SC,2 1668:and 1654:SC,1 1532:SC,2 1519:SC,1 1462:≥ 10 1449:gBSF 1444:and 1144:depl 1083:the 1054:= 4λ 935:NaOH 877:1.2 830:4–5 821:0.9 815:1.4 811:GaAs 802:5.3 793:500 771:2.6 749:c-Si 502:eV. 413:The 383:and 328:The 238:hole 166:and 64:are 37:Dawn 8204:REC 7143:doi 7092:doi 7088:209 6971:hdl 6925:doi 6882:PMC 6866:doi 6835:doi 6777:doi 6752:doi 6709:doi 6662:doi 6619:doi 6539:doi 6496:doi 6461:doi 6426:doi 6383:doi 6352:doi 6309:doi 6201:doi 6167:doi 6133:doi 6110:doi 5843:doi 5772:doi 5760:130 5525:MJ 5464:33 5411:63 5091:(In 5003:.47 4999:.53 4930:). 4170:exp 4096:rad 4000:exp 3963:rad 3849:exp 3766:exp 3755:rad 3736:rad 3727:rad 3203:/λ) 2378:SC3 2371:SC2 2364:SC1 2340:SC3 2333:SC2 2326:SC1 1321:exp 1073:min 1071:= λ 1056:min 971:TiO 955:SiO 883:30 836:50 805:50 401:|. 338:J-V 330:J-V 225:if 8297:: 8139:US 7236:: 7234:}} 7230:{{ 7219:. 7208:. 7185:. 7181:. 7141:. 7131:54 7129:. 7086:. 7027:, 6979:. 6953:^ 6939:. 6931:. 6919:. 6915:. 6890:. 6880:. 6872:. 6860:. 6856:. 6833:. 6823:79 6821:. 6807:^ 6793:. 6783:. 6750:. 6740:43 6738:. 6715:. 6707:. 6697:44 6695:. 6691:. 6668:. 6660:. 6648:. 6625:. 6615:20 6613:. 6567:. 6545:. 6537:. 6527:12 6525:. 6502:. 6494:. 6484:13 6482:. 6459:. 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4888:1 4885:+ 4881:) 4874:T 4871:k 4864:m 4860:V 4856:e 4850:+ 4847:1 4843:( 4833:+ 4829:) 4817:n 4813:e 4809:A 4804:( 4793:[ 4789:T 4786:k 4778:g 4774:E 4770:= 4765:m 4761:W 4733:T 4730:k 4722:m 4718:V 4714:e 4711:= 4702:m 4698:V 4694:e 4690:/ 4686:T 4683:k 4680:+ 4677:1 4670:m 4666:V 4662:e 4656:= 4644:n 4637:m 4633:V 4627:m 4623:J 4616:= 4611:m 4607:W 4592:m 4589:W 4566:m 4562:V 4558:e 4554:/ 4550:T 4547:k 4544:+ 4541:1 4530:n 4526:e 4520:= 4515:m 4511:J 4486:) 4479:T 4476:k 4469:m 4465:V 4461:e 4455:+ 4452:1 4448:( 4438:T 4435:k 4423:V 4419:e 4416:= 4411:m 4407:V 4403:e 4379:0 4376:= 4369:V 4366:d 4361:V 4358:J 4355:d 4342:m 4339:V 4335:m 4332:J 4313:) 4301:n 4297:e 4293:A 4288:( 4278:T 4275:k 4267:g 4263:E 4259:= 4250:V 4246:e 4232:J 4213:) 4207:T 4204:k 4197:g 4193:E 4186:V 4183:e 4177:( 4167:A 4155:n 4151:e 4148:= 4145:J 4128:J 4120:g 4117:E 4110:J 4103:J 4093:J 4086:J 4079:J 4075:J 4057:J 4037:) 4031:T 4028:k 4021:g 4017:E 4007:( 3997:A 3994:= 3989:h 3986:t 3982:J 3967:V 3960:J 3953:J 3949:n 3945:g 3942:E 3919:2 3915:c 3909:3 3905:h 3899:T 3896:k 3891:2 3886:g 3882:E 3877:) 3873:1 3870:+ 3865:2 3861:n 3856:( 3842:2 3836:= 3833:A 3809:) 3803:T 3800:k 3793:g 3789:E 3782:V 3779:e 3773:( 3763:A 3760:= 3751:J 3733:J 3724:J 3715:h 3675:] 3671:) 3666:i 3662:v 3658:h 3655:( 3649:v 3646:h 3643:d 3632:n 3628:d 3622:+ 3619:) 3614:1 3611:+ 3608:i 3604:v 3600:h 3597:( 3591:v 3588:h 3585:d 3574:n 3570:d 3563:[ 3557:2 3554:1 3549:) 3544:i 3540:v 3536:h 3528:1 3525:+ 3522:i 3518:v 3514:h 3511:( 3499:g 3495:E 3491:= 3488:i 3480:= 3477:v 3474:h 3471:d 3464:v 3461:h 3458:d 3447:n 3443:d 3428:g 3424:E 3415:= 3412:) 3407:g 3403:E 3399:( 3390:n 3353:E 3349:E 3327:c 3324:h 3319:E 3314:= 3303:E 3299:E 3294:= 3288:v 3285:h 3282:d 3271:n 3267:d 3250:E 3246:h 3239:n 3232:f 3228:c 3224:c 3220:h 3216:h 3209:E 3201:c 3199:( 3197:h 3186:E 3158:) 3151:i 3148:0 3144:J 3138:i 3129:J 3123:( 3111:q 3107:T 3104:k 3093:i 3084:V 3075:i 3066:J 3058:) 3054:1 3044:T 3041:k 3034:i 3030:V 3026:q 3020:e 3015:( 3009:i 3006:0 3002:J 2998:= 2993:i 2989:J 2963:i 2954:V 2941:. 2927:i 2918:V 2912:3 2907:1 2904:= 2901:i 2893:= 2884:V 2861:i 2857:V 2851:3 2846:1 2843:= 2840:i 2832:= 2829:V 2814:. 2812:i 2794:i 2790:d 2786:) 2780:( 2770:e 2759:i 2754:i 2752:d 2734:i 2730:d 2726:) 2720:( 2710:e 2703:1 2700:= 2697:) 2691:( 2686:i 2682:E 2678:Q 2655:) 2649:( 2626:) 2620:( 2615:i 2611:E 2607:Q 2581:d 2577:) 2571:( 2566:i 2562:E 2558:Q 2555:) 2549:( 2544:i 2536:q 2531:2 2523:0 2515:= 2510:i 2501:J 2491:) 2485:( 2480:i 2472:q 2467:) 2461:( 2456:i 2447:J 2440:= 2437:) 2431:( 2426:i 2422:E 2418:Q 2405:i 2400:i 2392:i 2387:i 2375:J 2368:J 2361:J 2354:i 2349:i 2344:J 2337:J 2330:J 2323:J 2316:J 2296:1 2293:, 2290:0 2286:J 2281:) 2275:1 2272:, 2269:0 2265:J 2259:2 2254:r 2250:n 2246:2 2243:+ 2238:2 2235:, 2232:0 2228:J 2223:( 2218:) 2212:2 2207:r 2203:n 2199:2 2196:+ 2193:1 2189:( 2185:= 2180:2 2175:0 2165:J 2139:r 2135:n 2112:2 2107:0 2097:J 2071:+ 2067:T 2040:T 2016:. 2007:T 2004:k 1999:V 1996:q 1989:e 1982:2 1977:0 1967:J 1960:+ 1955:2 1944:J 1933:4 1930:1 1922:) 1916:+ 1912:T 1905:1 1901:( 1888:J 1875:T 1869:2 1866:1 1861:+ 1857:) 1847:J 1843:+ 1834:J 1829:( 1823:2 1820:1 1815:= 1812:J 1781:2 1778:, 1775:0 1770:J 1763:1 1760:, 1757:0 1752:J 1748:= 1743:2 1738:0 1734:J 1707:J 1677:J 1650:J 1626:, 1617:T 1614:k 1609:V 1606:q 1599:e 1592:2 1587:0 1583:J 1579:+ 1574:2 1563:J 1552:4 1549:1 1538:) 1528:J 1524:+ 1515:J 1510:( 1504:2 1501:1 1496:= 1493:J 1460:n 1453:E 1446:E 1439:E 1432:E 1427:d 1425:E 1414:S 1387:E 1380:E 1362:) 1358:1 1351:) 1345:T 1342:k 1337:V 1334:q 1328:( 1317:( 1311:S 1307:J 1303:= 1300:J 1270:P 1266:J 1234:D 1230:N 1224:A 1220:N 1212:D 1208:N 1204:+ 1199:A 1195:N 1186:q 1182:) 1179:V 1171:0 1163:( 1157:2 1149:= 1140:l 1089:T 1077:J 1066:d 1060:n 1049:d 1043:n 1023:n 1016:2 1013:1 1003:n 999:= 990:n 976:2 967:2 960:2 951:1 947:R 943:T 740:S 723:p 721:τ 715:n 713:μ 695:a 688:g 685:E 654:g 651:E 639:g 636:E 624:g 621:E 599:E 592:g 581:g 578:E 563:a 399:P 386:I 379:V 374:m 371:J 367:m 364:V 353:P 346:I 334:J 320:I 313:I 309:g 306:I 299:I 292:I 288:V 277:I 275:( 270:I 263:E 255:g 252:I 242:E 234:g 231:E 209:g 183:E 172:E 56:( 20:)

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Index