922:
responsible for those orders resulting in a specific application of military force, such as shooting civilians or treating POWs inconsistently with the Geneva
Conventions. This is consistent with the Nuremberg defense, as only the civilian and military principals of the Axis were charged with crimes against peace, while subordinate military officials were not. It is often the case in modern warfare that while subordinate military officials are not held liable for their actions, neither are their superiors, as was the case with Calley's immediate superior Captain Ernest Medina.
481:
588:
31:
153:
396:
579:, who had served as Chief Counsel for the United States during the Nuremberg trials, employed the term "Nuremberg defense" in a different sense. He applied it not to the defense offered by the Nuremberg defendants but to a justification put forward by those who refused to take part in military action (specifically America's involvement in the Vietnam War) that they believed to be criminal.
238:". However, these alleged orders were only issued verbally, were denied by Kitchener and his staff, and could not be validated in court. Furthermore, the crown prosecutor argued that even if such orders existed, they were "illegal orders" and was sustained by the court, resulting in a guilty verdict against all four men. In a ruling still reviled in modern
674:(IDF) and said "For 35 years a black flag was proudly hanging over our heads, but we have refused to see it". A translation note explains the "Black Flag" principle but adds "In the 45 years that passed since , not even a single soldier was protected by a military court for refusing to obey a command because it was a 'black flag' command."
667:'s words, still much-quoted today, were that "The distinguishing mark of a manifestly illegal order is that above such an order should fly, like a black flag, a warning saying: 'Prohibited!' Illegality that pierces the eye and revolts the heart, if the eye is not blind and the heart is not impenetrable or corrupt."
946:
Shishimarin had intended not to kill but only to carry out the order formally, which
Shishimarin had refused twice before succumbing to pressure from other soldiers. He further argued that the shots were unaimed, fired from a moving vehicle with a faulty tire, and only one bullet out of the burst hit.
747:
under its war crimes legislation in 1987. He was accused of organizing the deportation of over 8,000 Jews to Nazi death camps. He was acquitted on the defence that he was following the orders of a superior. The
Canadian courts that accepted that verdict are the only ones in the world that recognize
453:
The
Dostler case became a precedent for the principle that was used in the Nuremberg Trials of German generals, officials, and Nazi leaders beginning in November 1945: using superior orders as a defense does not relieve officers from responsibility of carrying out illegal orders and their liability
876:
An individual must be involved at the policy-making level to be culpable for a crime against peace ... the ordinary foot soldier is not expected to make his or her own personal assessment as to the legality of a conflict. Similarly, such an individual cannot be held criminally responsible for
945:
shot and killed unarmed civilian
Oleksandr Shelipov, a 62 year old Ukrainian man. His trial started on 13 May 2022, and on Wednesday 18 May, Shishimarin pleaded guilty to the killing. On Friday 20 May, Shishimarin's defense lawyer asked for his client to be acquitted of war crimes. He argued that
921:
for territorial aggrandizement), which he believed could make him liable for prosecution under the command responsibility doctrine. In this case, the judge ruled that soldiers, in general, are not responsible for determining whether the order to go to war is itself a lawful order – but are only
662:
ruling. The trial considered for the first time the issue of when
Israeli security personnel are required to disobey illegal orders. The judges decided that soldiers do not have the obligation to examine each and every order in detail as to its legality, nor were they entitled to disobey orders
643:
553:
to be punished for his participation in it if he either transgressed the order on his own account, or if he knew the order to be criminal. The Nazis did not bother (or were too reluctant) to formalize many of their offenses (e.g., killing a non-combatant without trial), so the prosecutors at
1286:
interprets the precept to mean that "if a person is sent to perform an evil act, he cannot defend his behavior by saying he was only acting as another's messenger. ... he person who carries out the evil act bears responsibility for the evil he or she does." This is because God's law (i.e.
321:, then Germany's supreme court, acquitted Lt.-Capt. Neumann, accepting the defense that he had believed the sinking to be a lawful act. Further, the court stated "that all civilized nations recognize the principle that a subordinate is covered by the orders of his superiors".
734:
held that "the justification for acts done pursuant to orders does not exist if the order was of such a nature that a man of ordinary sense and understanding would know it to be illegal". The soldier who gave the order, Corporal Luczko, was acquitted by reason of insanity.
523:, and other defendants unsuccessfully used the defense. They contended that while they knew Hitler's orders were unlawful, or at least had reason to believe they were unlawful, their place was not to question, but to obey. They claimed they were compelled to do so by the
110:
Apart from the specific plea of superior orders, discussions about how the general concept of superior orders ought to be used, or ought not to be used, have taken place in various arguments, rulings and statutes that have not necessarily been part of "after the fact"
1329:
The common argument is that every individual under orders should be bound by law to immediately relieve of command an officer who gives an obviously unlawful order to their troops. This represents a rational check against organizational command hierarchies.
642:), a concept in which a certain action is ordered which violates law but where the refusal to carry it out would lead to drastic consequences for the person refusing. This was quite successful in war crimes trials in Germany. With the formation of the
1235:
responds to that dilemma by stating: "The fact that internal law does not impose a penalty for an act which constitutes a crime under international law does not relieve the person who committed the act from responsibility under international law."
1873:
The claim that
American intervention in Vietnam is itself an aggressive war and therefore criminal - the so-called 'Nuremberg defense' - has been put forward by draft card burners, draftees facing induction and soldiers about to be shipped to
776:
The fact that a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court has been committed by a person pursuant to an order of a
Government or of a superior, whether military or civilian, shall not relieve that person of criminal responsibility unless:
1853:, i.e., "... if it was known to him that the superior's order concerned an action that aimed at a civil or military felony or misdemeanor". According to general legal interpretation, "if he knew" means "unless he did not know
442:, whether they were in proper uniforms or not, without trial if they were apprehended by German forces. The tribunal rejected the defense of Superior Orders and found Dostler guilty of war crimes. He was sentenced to death and
324:
Many other German veterans similarly facing prosecution for war crimes at
Leipzig were also acquitted by either alleging ignorance of the law or citing the superior orders defense, creating immense dissatisfaction among the
1671:"Free Man Who Sank a Hospital Ship; Leipsic Judges Acquit Neumann on the Ground That He Acted Under Orders. He Admitted Torpedoing. Prosecutor Demanded Acquittal, Calling Dover Castle Culpable in Carrying Wounded Soldiers"
757:
1247:
choice" as being just as important as legal decisions: "The fact that a person acted pursuant to order of his
Government or of a superior does not relieve him from responsibility under international law, provided a
507:, "defense of superior orders" is not a defense for war crimes, although it might be a mitigating factor that could influence a sentencing authority to lessen the penalty. Nuremberg Principle IV states:
1888:
230:) were indicted and tried for a number of murders, including those of prisoners who had surrendered and been disarmed. A significant part of the defense was that they were acting under orders issued by
511:
The fact that a person acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior does not relieve him from responsibility under international law, provided a moral choice was in fact possible to him.
713:
as stating that Calley's sentence was reduced because Calley believed that what he did was a part of his orders. Calley used the exact phrase "just following orders" when another American soldier,
349:
on the unarmed shipwreck survivors and obeyed the order. They were both found guilty and sentenced, despite the very deep stigma and humiliation involved for a military officer in pre-1945
2692:
2727:
423:
in Italy in March 1944. He admitted to ordering the execution, but said that he could not be held responsible because he was following orders from his superiors. The execution of the
364:, however, "generally speaking, the German population took exception to these trials, especially because the Allies were not similarly bringing their own soldiers to justice." (See
493:
372:
96:
353:, to serve their terms of incarceration in a civilian prison. However, the verdict was later overturned on appeal, on the grounds that their fugitive former commanding officer,
183:. Since he was convicted for crimes that "he as a knight was deemed to have a duty to prevent", Hagenbach defended himself by arguing that he was only following orders from the
2519:
654:
In 1957, the Israeli legal system established the concept of a "blatantly illegal order" to explain when a military (or security-related) order should be followed, and when it
731:
371:
Even so, dissatisfaction with the Leipzig trials is thought to be one of the main causes for the specific nullification of the superior orders defense in the August 8, 1945,
115:, strictly speaking. Nevertheless, these discussions and related events help to explain the evolution of the specific plea of superior orders and the history of its usage.
1850:"... wenn ihm bekannt gewesen, daß der Befehl des Vorgesetzten eine Handlung betraf, welche ein bürgerliches oder militärisches Verbrechen oder Vergehen bezweckte"
2687:
2299:
535:. In most cases, the tribunal found that the defendants' offenses were so egregious that obedience to superior orders could not be considered a mitigating factor.
2717:
2141:
1350:
1885:
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is any actor who is primarily responsible for a criminal offense. Such an actor is distinguished from others who may also be subject to criminal liability as
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Another argument against the use of the superior orders defense is that it does not follow the traditional legal definitions and categories established under
329:
news media and public. On the other hand, when the defendants at Leipzig could not reasonably claim that they did not know at the time that they were obeying
2261:
1205:
The superior orders defense is still used with the following rationale in the following scenario: An "order" may come from one's superior at the level of
2697:
1947:
1634:
1517:
2584:
663:
merely on a subjective feeling that they might be illegal. On the other hand, some orders were manifestly illegal, and these must be disobeyed. Judge
562:
The trials gained so much attention that the "superior orders defense" has subsequently become interchangeable with the label "Nuremberg defense", a
2512:
2433:
1556:
2116:"Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court; Part 3: General Principles of Criminal Law; Article 33: Superior orders and prescription of law"
1654:
1200:
492:
the issue of superior orders again arose. Before the end of World War II, the Allies suspected such a defense might be employed and issued the
2056:
463:
231:
2359:
297:. Even though Neumann frankly admitted to having sunk the ship, he stated that he had done so on the basis of authorisation supplied by the
2441:
Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the NĂĽremberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal, 1950: Introduction
247:
770:, established to try those accused of serious international crimes. Article 33, titled "Superior orders and prescription of law", states:
929:
developed the concept of individual criminal liability for war crimes, which resulted in the current doctrine of command responsibility.
2814:
2794:
2505:
2166:
1658:
250:, whose own actions are widely considered to have been much more brutal and inhumane, was also tried but was acquitted on all charges.
2554:
554:
Nuremberg could have argued that the defendants broke German law to begin with. However, this line of argument was infrequently used.
330:
306:
175:
Specifically, Hagenbach was put on trial for atrocities committed under his command but not by him directly, during the occupation of
1357:
can apply for refugee status in another country if they face persecution in their own for refusing to participate in an illegal war.
2313:
1996:
1769:
670:
Captain (res.) Itai Haviv, a signatory of the 'courage to refuse' letter of 2002, told of his unhappiness about his service for the
56:
in a court of law that a person, whether civilian, military or police, can be considered guilty of committing crimes ordered by a
1646:
1271:. It states that one has a right to just treatment, and therefore has a reciprocal responsibility to ensure justice for others.
616:
298:
209:
2010:
1642:
2758:
2702:
2297:"Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law"
2296:
2235:
1670:
1650:
1477:, Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law, 13 DUKEJCIL 389 (Spring, 2003). Asserting in the author's view that a
2574:
2082:
818:
695:
549:
The German military law since 1872 said that while the superior is ("solely") responsible for his order, the subordinate
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2707:
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2214:
1787:
1192:
1188:
1085:
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767:
123:
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law. Such an "unlawful order" presents a legal dilemma from which there is no legal escape: On one hand, a person who
1147:
938:
380:
1259:
a decision is often made by appealing to a "higher ethic". One found in many religions and in secular ethics is the
2789:
2600:
2528:
2283:
1587:
1376:
The Defence of Superior Orders: The Statute of the International Criminal Court versus Customary International Law
480:
2809:
2753:
2145:
1383:
699:
620:
443:
420:
263:
259:
91:
to prosecute, among others, prominent members of the political, military and economic leadership of the defeated
2265:
2097:
1931:
1583:
1347:
the principles found in paragraph 171 of the Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status
1343:
certain articles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that deal indirectly with conscientious objection
1299:
861:
793:
For the purposes of this article, orders to commit genocide or crimes against humanity are manifestly unlawful.
2342:
1631:
877:
fighting in support of an illegal war, assuming that his or her personal war-time conduct is otherwise proper.
354:
2480:
See, e.g., Superior Growers, 982 F.2d at 177–78; United States v. Campa, 679 F.2d 1006, 1013 (lst Cir. 1982).
2611:
1506:
882:
722:
542:
was inclined to have the leaders "executed as outlaws". The Soviets desired trials but wished there to be a
416:
361:
2768:
2743:
2636:
1886:
The Secret in Their Eyes: Historical Memory, Production Models, and the Foreign Film Oscar (WEB EXCLUSIVE)
1354:
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865:
849:
671:
496:(IMT), which explicitly stated that following an unlawful order is not a valid defense against charges of
436:
334:
243:
191:, to whom the Holy Roman Empire had given Breisach, but this defense was rejected and he was convicted of
180:
147:
84:
65:
57:
118:
Historically, the plea of superior orders has been used both before and after the Nuremberg Trials, with
99:
that established them, the trials determined that the defense of superior orders was no longer enough to
2804:
2384:
1943:
1398:
703:
326:
302:
1641:
February 10, 2006 Draft by M. Cherif Bassiouni -Distinguished Research Professor of Law and President,
644:
Central Office of the State Justice Administrations for the Investigation of National Socialist Crimes
2712:
2569:
2040:
Marshall, Burke; Goldstein, Joseph (2 April 1976). "Learning From My Lai: A Proposal on War Crimes".
1568:
1261:
1232:
868:
ruling was released on March 31, 2006, and denied the refugee status claim. In the decision, Justice
823:
781:
The person was under a legal obligation to obey orders of the Government or the superior in question;
646:
this changed, as its research revealed that refusing an unlawful order did not result in punishment.
504:
459:
455:
333:, this defense proved ineffective. For instance, following the sinking of the Canadian hospital ship
310:
267:
2492:
2098:"After Parliament's humiliation, Canada has to reckon with its past treatment of Nazis, experts say"
683:
2819:
2799:
2669:
2616:
2579:
1603:
1599:
1548:
1507:"Situation In The Democratic Republic Of The Congo In The Case Of The Prosecutor V. Bosco Ntaganda"
1479:
1423:
992:
914:
659:
365:
172:, the first known "international" recognition of commanders' obligations to act lawfully occurred.
165:
2653:
2648:
2621:
2559:
2194:
1408:
1315:
1311:
1209:
law. But according to Nuremberg Principle IV, such an order is sometimes "unlawful" according to
317:
individual U-boats could choose to fire upon Allied hospital ships under certain conditions. The
314:
284:
1615:
272:
726:, the accused was found guilty of murder after he obeyed an order to shoot and kill an elderly
2564:
2076:
1992:
1897:
1765:
1418:
1334:
1275:
1155:
987:
942:
926:
918:
886:
814:
714:
587:
539:
484:
Photo of the trial at Nuremberg, depicting the defendants, guarded by American Military Police
412:
408:
376:
293:
235:
169:
112:
2210:
2174:
1974:
M. R. Lippman, "Humanitarian Law: The Development and Scope of the Superior Orders Defense",
2682:
2631:
1413:
1385:
Conundrums of Armed Conflict: Criminal Defenses to Violations of the Humanitarian Law of War
1319:
1283:
1043:
526:
489:
475:
424:
384:
309:
by using hospital ships for military purposes, such as transporting healthy troops, and the
188:
184:
80:
76:
35:
30:
538:
Before the trials, there was little Allied consensus about prosecuting Nazi war prisoners.
2549:
2346:
2279:"Soldier's Iraq war stance backed: Watada has right to refuse to go, retired officer says"
1892:
1638:
1256:
897:
refused an application to have the Court hear the case on appeal, without giving reasons.
706:
664:
633:
215:
152:
72:
2321:
615:, who was responsible for many disappearances and kidnappings that took place during its
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894:
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223:
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129:
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1544:
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1915:
1338:
608:
563:
404:
318:
288:
227:
395:
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1295:
1081:
1071:
1047:
1038:
910:
857:
763:
543:
428:
239:
92:
88:
1928:
1175:
plea of superior orders in a war crimes trial, as opposed to events regarding the
2409:
2167:"Hinzman v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) (F.C.), 2006 FC 420"
1274:
Although messengers are not usually responsible for the content of messages, the
572:, literally "an order is an order") and so are not responsible for their crimes.
17:
1267:
1016:
1010:
691:
532:
520:
2410:"Ukraine war: Russian soldier Vadim Shishimarin jailed for life over war crime"
2018:
2115:
1989:
Transformative Justice: Israeli Identity on Trial (Law, Meaning, and Violence)
1303:
1279:
1196:
744:
690:. Some have argued that the outcome of the Mỹ Lai trial was a reversal of the
192:
2497:
1839:§ 5, is only marginal, at least as far as the letter of the law is concerned.
1632:
The Perennial Conflict Between International Criminal Justice and Realpolitik
1496:, Case Western Journal of International Law, Vol. 34. (Fall 2002) at p. 335.e
2658:
1793:
838:
612:
497:
439:
258:
On June 4, 1921, the legal limits of superior orders were tested during the
1545:
The evolution of individual criminal responsibility under international law
2385:"Russian soldier in Ukraine war crimes trial says he did not want to kill"
1699:
1104:
1095:
2626:
2169:. Office of the Commissioner for Federal Judicial Affairs. pp. (see
1952:
1619:
1323:
1288:
1114:
1101:
1091:
981:
906:
841:
624:
623:
upon the population, resulting in what (to several sources) amounted to
419:. He was accused of ordering the execution of 15 captured US soldiers of
346:
277:
176:
61:
1746:"German War Trials: Judgment in Case of Lieutenants Dithmar and Boldt".
1337:
that counters the superior orders defense, is legally supported by the
845:
826:, and its reference to an individual's responsibility, was at issue in
727:
531:(leader principle) that governed the Nazi regime, as well as their own
342:
758:
States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
566:
that essentially states that defendants were "only following orders" (
2643:
827:
604:
447:
281:
1374:
2302:
by Allison Marston Danner and Jenny S. Martinez, September 15, 2004
1547:
By Edoardo Greppi, Associate Professor of International Law at the
179:. This was the earliest modern European example of the doctrine of
2199:
Federal Court decision. Paras (157) and (158). Accessed 2008-06-18
1833:, § 47. The difference to the present regulation, as found in the
1720:"German War Trials: Judgement in Case of Commander Karl Neumann",
1552:
1448:, (A. W. Sijthoff International Publishing Co., Netherlands, 1976)
1137:
913:
refused to go to Iraq on account of his belief that the war was a
586:
479:
394:
151:
29:
1459:
Obeying Orders: Atrocity, Military Discipline, and the Law of War
1225:
such an unlawful order faces the possibility of legal punishment
1217:
such an unlawful order faces the possibility of legal punishment
1368:
The Defence of Obedience to Superior Orders in International Law
157:
53:
2501:
2469:
The Book of Jewish Values: A Day-By-Day Guide to Ethical Living
1353:(UNHCR). Those principles deal with the conditions under which
743:
The Canadian government prosecuted Hungarian Nazi collaborator
1569:
Exhibit highlights the first international war crimes tribunal
686:
in 1968, the defense was employed during the court martial of
2360:"Lawyer asks Kyiv war crimes trial to acquit Russian soldier"
1028:
1483:
approach to superior orders is an "underinclusive extreme".
262:
that tried German military veterans for committing alleged
1388:
pdf, Penn State International Law Review, 1996, Volume 15.
2693:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
270:. One of the most famous of these trials remains that of
1056:
784:
The person did not know that the order was unlawful; and
2728:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
1461:, (Transactions Publishers, New Brunswick, N.J., 1999).
454:
to be punished in court. The principle was codified in
435:
of 1942, which required the immediate execution of all
427:
in Italy, ordered by Dostler, was an implementation of
246:, the defendants' de facto commanding officer, Captain
1475:
Defense of Superior Orders Before Military Commissions
901:
Legal proceedings of Ehren Watada in the United States
658:
be followed. The concept was explained in 1957 in the
27:
Criminal defense of following the orders of a superior
998:
766:
was agreed in 1998 as the foundation document of the
752:
1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
494:
London Charter of the International Military Tribunal
373:
London Charter of the International Military Tribunal
97:
London Charter of the International Military Tribunal
1948:"Hatten SS-Mitglieder damals wirklich 'keine Wahl'?"
1282:) states, "There is no messenger in a case of sin."
375:. The removal has been attributed to the actions of
2736:
2667:
2598:
2535:
2236:"Top court refuses to hear cases of U.S. deserters"
1950:[Did SS members really have "no choice"?].
1910:
Conadep, Nunca Más Report, Chapter II, Section One:
1584:
An Introduction to the International Criminal Court
1379:, pdf, European Journal of International Law, 1999.
2683:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
2343:"Command, superior and ministerial responsibility"
1871:. New York: The New York Times Group. p. 15.
1786:
595:The defense of superior orders again arose in the
2314:"Command Responsibility – An International Focus"
1446:Superior Orders in National and International Law
1243:dilemma, but Nuremberg Principle IV speaks of "a
933:Legal proceedings of Vadim Shishimarin in Ukraine
301:. The Imperial German Government had accused the
2713:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
2688:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
1816:Global Justice: The Politics of War Crime Trials
872:addressed the issue of personal responsibility:
2063:. Archived from the original on 5 December 2010
1733:G. A. Finch, "Superior Orders and War Crimes",
1516:. International Criminal Court. 30 March 2021.
874:
772:
509:
1830:Militär-Strafgesetzbuch für das Deutsche Reich
1724:, Vol. 16, No. 4. (October 1922), pp. 704–708.
1314:. (See also the various degrees of liability:
313:had accordingly decreed on 19 March 1917 that
2513:
2320:. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from
2135:
2133:
1602:The Mens Rea Requirement, By Eugenia Levine,
1351:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
972:"not responsible" because of superior orders
805:Legal proceedings of Jeremy Hinzman in Canada
717:, confronted him about the ongoing massacre.
8:
2493:usmilitary.about.com: To Obey or Not to Obey
1848:
1834:
631:
567:
524:
399:Dostler tied to a stake before the execution
383:, who was appointed Chief Prosecutor at the
2262:"Decisions – Bulletin of November 16, 2007"
1828:
1764:. University of Nebraska Press. p. 5.
1737:, Vol. 15, No. 3. (July 1921), pp. 440–445.
2698:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
2520:
2506:
2498:
2264:. Sections 32111 and 32112. Archived from
1869:Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy
1762:The Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau, 1939-1945
860:), had previously raised the issue of the
2718:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
2057:"Military Orders To Obey or Not to Obey?"
1788:"Churchill: execute Hitler without trial"
1748:The American Journal of International Law
1735:The American Journal of International Law
1722:The American Journal of International Law
1579:
1577:
462:, and similar principles are in the 1948
160:Chronik des Diebold Schilling dem Ă„lteren
2434:International Committee of the Red Cross
2144:. Toronto's Now Magazine. Archived from
1698:Sir Andrew Macphail (28 February 2000).
1643:International Human Rights Law Institute
1557:International Committee of the Red Cross
1540:
1538:
1349:, which was issued by the Office of the
953:
254:German military trials after World War I
1655:Georgia State University College of Law
1649:, Presented March 14, 2006 as the 38th
1434:
864:as having a bearing on their case. The
739:1987 Canadian prosecution of Imre Finta
630:The 1950s and 1960s saw the defense of
2471:. New York: Bell Tower, 2000. p. 330
2096:Brewster, Murray (28 September 2023).
2074:
1991:, University of Michigan Press, 2004,
1700:"Royal Canadian Naval Medical Service"
1559:No. 835, p. 531–553, October 30, 1999.
1201:Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project
1171:: Yellow rows indicate the use of the
1015:Germany's Supreme Court (trials after
969:"responsible" despite superior orders
881:On November 15, 2007, a quorum of the
787:The order was not manifestly unlawful.
357:, bore the lion's share of the guilt.
305:of violating Articles X and XI of the
1702:. Great War Primary Documents Archive
1651:Henry J. Miller Distinguished Lecture
1571:by Linda Grant, Harvard Law Bulletin.
1252:choice was in fact possible to him".
1080:future cases under Article 33 of the
464:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
7:
2209:Goergen, Roman (February 23, 2011).
1857:had a valid excuse for not knowing".
1750:, vol. 16, no. 4, 1922, pp. 708–724.
75:was by the accused in the 1945–1946
64:. It is regarded as a complement to
1976:Penn State International Law Review
1929:Atrocities in Argentina (1976–1983)
1659:Georgia State University Law Review
1022:Lieutenant Karl Neumann and others
470:Nuremberg Trials after World War II
411:to be tried for war crimes by a US
345:were ordered to open fire with the
287:who torpedoed and sank the British
1221:. On the other hand, a person who
856:. Hinzman's lawyer, (at that time
619:(1976–1983). The dictators forced
25:
1760:de Zayas, Alfred-Maurice (1989).
1523:from the original on 15 July 2022
937:On February 28, 2022, during the
341:Ludwig Dithmar and John Boldt of
1647:DePaul University College of Law
617:last civil-military dictatorship
360:According to American historian
103:punishment but merely enough to
2437:
1033:
1005:
975:
210:Court-martial of Breaker Morant
204:Court-martial of Breaker Morant
2759:International humanitarian law
2703:Special Court for Sierra Leone
2118:. United Nations. 12 July 1999
1785:Crossland, John (2006-01-01).
1278:(3rd to 5th century corpus of
266:in a civilian court after the
71:One noted use of this plea or
34:Defendants in the dock at the
1:
1100:possibly in cases other than
1068:preparation for future cases
963:Jurisdiction / decisionmaker
819:Canada and Iraq War resisters
515:During the Nuremberg Trials,
168:by an ad hoc tribunal of the
2723:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
2708:International Criminal Court
1333:Nuremberg Principle IV, the
1193:Sources of international law
1189:International legal theories
1179:concept of superior orders.
1086:International Criminal Court
1076:International Criminal Court
768:International Criminal Court
533:oath of allegiance to Hitler
218:, four Australian officers (
124:International Criminal Court
122:, up to the final ruling of
119:
83:held by the main victorious
2764:International speech crimes
2545:Customary international law
2142:"AWOL GIs Dealt Legal Blow"
1148:Russian invasion of Ukraine
939:Russian invasion of Ukraine
694:that were set forth in the
381:United States Supreme Court
2836:
2815:United States military law
2795:International criminal law
2585:Convention Against Torture
2529:International criminal law
2284:Seattle Post-Intelligencer
2173:Para. (1)). Archived from
2140:Mernagh, M. (2006-05-18).
1588:Cambridge University Press
1345:. It is also supported by
1227:at the international level
1186:
808:
755:
700:Tokyo War Crimes Tribunals
607:, as well as the trial of
473:
444:executed by a firing squad
207:
145:
2754:Joint criminal enterprise
2456:The Book of Jewish Values
2454:42b. Qtd. in Telushkin,
2260:Supreme Court of Canada.
2081:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1120:Justice Anne L. Mactavish
1094:and possibly other cases
925:Based on this principle,
905:In June 2006, during the
732:Court of Military Appeals
640:compulsion to obey orders
639:
621:state-sponsored terrorism
591:Eichmann on trial in 1961
264:war crimes in World War I
260:Leipzig War Crimes Trials
164:In 1474, in the trial of
156:Hagenbach on trial, from
79:. These were a series of
2674:(in order of foundation)
1932:Holocaust Museum Houston
1867:Taylor, Telford (1970).
1370:, Sijthoff-Leyden, 1965.
1291:) supersedes human law.
966:Defendant(s) or case(s)
862:legality of the Iraq War
446:on December 1, 1945, in
307:Hague Convention of 1907
2612:Crimes against humanity
1999:, pp. 169–197, 310–324.
1814:Moghalu, K. C. (2006).
1657:, and to appear in the
1494:The Legacy of Nuremberg
1355:conscientious objectors
986:ad hoc tribunal of the
883:Supreme Court of Canada
854:many Iraq War resisters
723:United States v. Keenan
488:In 1945–46, during the
417:Royal Palace of Caserta
2769:Universal jurisdiction
2744:Command responsibility
2637:Incitement to genocide
2575:United Nations Charter
2061:About.com: US Military
1944:Kellerhoff, Sven Felix
1849:
1835:
1829:
1600:Command Responsibility
1233:Nuremberg Principle II
1124:Federal Court (Canada)
879:
850:conscientious objector
848:status in Canada as a
824:Nuremberg Principle IV
797:
672:Israeli Defense Forces
650:Israeli law since 1956
632:
592:
568:
525:
513:
505:Nuremberg Principle IV
485:
400:
335:HMHS Llandovery Castle
244:miscarriage of justice
181:command responsibility
161:
148:Command responsibility
66:command responsibility
38:
2268:on February 16, 2009.
1399:Corpse-like obedience
1239:This might present a
1219:at the national level
756:Further information:
748:that legal defence.
704:Secretary of the Army
599:of Nazi war criminal
590:
483:
398:
355:Helmut BrĂĽmmer-Patzig
339:Oberleutnants zur See
155:
50:the Nuremberg defense
46:just following orders
33:
2670:International courts
2570:Nuremberg principles
2467:Telushkin, Joseph.
1586:William A. Schabas,
1262:ethic of reciprocity
1255:In moral choices or
1131:(refugee applicant)
678:1968 Mỹ Lai massacre
575:However, US General
544:presumption of guilt
460:Nuremberg Principles
403:On October 8, 1945,
311:Imperial German Navy
268:Treaty of Versailles
226:, Henry Picton, and
120:inconsistent rulings
2617:Crime of aggression
2580:Genocide Convention
1604:Global Policy Forum
1549:University of Turin
1480:respondeat superior
1424:Vicarious liability
993:Peter von Hagenbach
941:, Russian Sergeant
915:crime against peace
660:Kafr Qasim massacre
569:"Befehl ist Befehl"
558:"Nuremberg defense"
379:, a Justice of the
315:officers commanding
166:Peter von Hagenbach
2622:Crime of apartheid
2560:Geneva Conventions
2345:by Robin Rowland,
2324:on 8 November 2012
2211:"Sanctuary Denied"
2042:The New York Times
1891:2012-01-27 at the
1637:2008-09-10 at the
1409:Milgram experiment
1316:absolute liability
1136:equivalent to yes
980:the occupation of
960:Preceding context
832:Hinzman v. Canada.
800:2000–present
709:was quoted in the
593:
486:
421:Operation Ginny II
401:
285:Officer Commanding
162:
81:military tribunals
39:
2790:Criminal defenses
2777:
2776:
2603:international law
2565:Nuremberg Charter
2555:Hague Conventions
2196:Hinzman v. Canada
2021:on 4 October 2018
1987:Leora Y. Bilsky,
1898:Cineaste Magazine
1419:Tu quoque defense
1382:Matthew Lippman:
1335:international law
1276:Babylonian Talmud
1166:
1165:
1156:Vadim Shishimarin
988:Holy Roman Empire
943:Vadim Shishimarin
927:international law
919:war of aggression
887:Michel Bastarache
885:made of Justices
870:Anne L. Mactavish
815:Anne L. Mactavish
540:Winston Churchill
413:military tribunal
377:Robert H. Jackson
236:take no prisoners
170:Holy Roman Empire
113:war crimes trials
18:Nuremberg defense
16:(Redirected from
2827:
2810:Nuremberg trials
2737:Related concepts
2675:
2632:Genocidal intent
2522:
2515:
2508:
2499:
2481:
2478:
2472:
2465:
2459:
2449:
2443:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2356:
2350:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2309:
2303:
2294:
2288:
2287:, June 20, 2006.
2276:
2270:
2269:
2257:
2251:
2250:
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2247:
2232:
2226:
2225:
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2206:
2200:
2192:
2186:
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2183:
2182:
2163:
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2153:
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2127:
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2112:
2106:
2105:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2080:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2017:. Archived from
2006:
2000:
1985:
1979:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1946:(15 July 2015).
1940:
1934:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1908:
1902:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1846:
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1832:
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1725:
1718:
1712:
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1709:
1707:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1667:
1661:
1629:
1623:
1622:, July 18, 2002.
1616:Judge and master
1613:
1607:
1597:
1591:
1581:
1572:
1566:
1560:
1542:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1522:
1511:
1503:
1497:
1492:H. T. King Jr.,
1490:
1484:
1473:James B. Insco,
1468:
1462:
1455:
1449:
1439:
1414:Radbruch formula
1366:Yoram Dinstein:
1320:strict liability
1284:Joseph Telushkin
1257:ethical dilemmas
1152:Serhiy Agafonov
1044:Nuremberg trials
954:
641:
637:
571:
530:
490:Nuremberg trials
476:Nuremberg trials
425:prisoners of war
385:Nuremberg trials
366:Victor's justice
299:German Admiralty
276:Karl Neumann of
189:Charles the Bold
185:Duke of Burgundy
77:Nuremberg trials
58:superior officer
44:, also known as
36:Nuremberg trials
21:
2835:
2834:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2749:Superior orders
2732:
2676:
2673:
2672:
2663:
2605:
2602:
2594:
2550:Peremptory norm
2531:
2526:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2466:
2462:
2450:
2446:
2432:
2428:
2419:
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2407:
2403:
2394:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2369:
2367:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2347:CBC News Online
2341:
2337:
2327:
2325:
2312:Anne E, Mahle.
2311:
2310:
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2295:
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2259:
2258:
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2178:
2165:
2164:
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2151:
2149:
2139:
2138:
2131:
2121:
2119:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2095:
2094:
2090:
2073:
2066:
2064:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2024:
2022:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1986:
1982:
1973:
1969:
1959:
1957:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1909:
1905:
1893:Wayback Machine
1884:
1880:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1847:
1843:
1836:Wehrstrafgesetz
1827:
1823:
1813:
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1682:
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1664:
1639:Wayback Machine
1630:
1626:
1618:By Don Murray,
1614:
1610:
1606:, February 2005
1598:
1594:
1590:, Third Edition
1582:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1543:
1536:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1509:
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1500:
1491:
1487:
1469:
1465:
1457:Mark J. Osiel,
1456:
1452:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1403:Kadavergehorsam
1395:
1363:
1203:
1185:
1052:all defendants
952:
935:
903:
830:in the case of
821:
807:
802:
796:
790:
760:
754:
741:
707:Howard Callaway
684:Mỹ Lai massacre
680:
665:Benjamin Halevy
652:
634:Befehlsnotstand
585:
583:1947–2000
560:
478:
472:
393:
362:Alfred de Zayas
331:criminal orders
273:Kapitänleutnant
256:
216:Second Boer War
212:
206:
201:
199:1900–1947
150:
144:
139:
42:Superior orders
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2640:
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2634:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2608:
2606:
2601:Crimes against
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
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2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
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2533:
2532:
2527:
2525:
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2517:
2510:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2488:
2487:External links
2485:
2483:
2482:
2473:
2460:
2444:
2426:
2401:
2376:
2364:Times of Malta
2351:
2335:
2304:
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2271:
2252:
2227:
2215:In These Times
2201:
2187:
2158:
2129:
2107:
2088:
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2001:
1980:
1967:
1935:
1921:
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1690:
1679:. June 5, 1921
1676:New York Times
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1129:Jeremy Hinzman
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895:Louise Charron
891:Rosalie Abella
835:Jeremy Hinzman
811:Jeremy Hinzman
806:
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798:
795:
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791:
789:
788:
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773:
753:
750:
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737:
711:New York Times
688:William Calley
682:Following the
679:
676:
651:
648:
601:Adolf Eichmann
584:
581:
577:Telford Taylor
559:
556:
552:
517:Wilhelm Keitel
471:
468:
433:Commando Order
409:German general
407:was the first
392:
389:
351:German culture
255:
252:
232:Lord Kitchener
224:Peter Handcock
220:Breaker Morant
208:Main article:
205:
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195:and beheaded.
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2386:
2380:
2377:
2366:. 20 May 2022
2365:
2361:
2355:
2352:
2349:, May 6, 2004
2348:
2344:
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2323:
2319:
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2290:
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2256:
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2241:
2237:
2231:
2228:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2177:on 2009-02-16
2176:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2159:
2148:on 2011-06-05
2147:
2143:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2117:
2111:
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2103:
2099:
2092:
2089:
2084:
2078:
2062:
2058:
2055:Powers, Rod.
2051:
2048:
2044:. p. 26.
2043:
2036:
2033:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2009:Haviv, Itai.
2005:
2002:
1998:
1997:0-472-03037-X
1994:
1990:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1971:
1968:
1955:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1939:
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1930:
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1916:
1913:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1899:
1895:Matt Losada,
1894:
1890:
1887:
1882:
1879:
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1870:
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1856:
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1771:0-8032-9908-7
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1373:Paola Gaeta:
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1912:Advertencia
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1017:World War I
1011:World War I
692:laws of war
521:Alfred Jodl
214:During the
142:Before 1500
2820:War crimes
2800:Law of war
2784:Categories
2654:Starvation
2438:References
2420:2022-05-23
2395:2022-05-23
2370:2022-05-23
2328:18 October
2246:2008-06-02
2181:2008-06-16
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1430:References
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