464: m/d), this equates to 105,000,000β315,000,000 US gallons per day (400,000β1,190,000 m/d) of water. These numbers include water requirements for power generation for in-situ heating processes, retorting, refining, reclamation, dust control and on-site worker demands. Municipal and other water requirements related to population growth associated with industry development will require an additional 58 million US gallons (220,000 m) per day. Hence, a 2.5 million barrels per day (400
77:, and the assumption that the price will remain at a certain level for some time to come. As a developing fuel source the production and processing costs for oil shale are high due to the small nature of the projects and the specialist technology involved. A full-scale project to develop oil shale would require heavy investment and could potentially leave businesses vulnerable should the oil price drop and the cost of producing the oil would exceed the price they could obtain for the oil.
25:
414:). The value of the EROEI for oil shale is difficult to calculate for a number of reasons. Lack of reliable studies of modern oil shale processes, poor or undocumented methodology and a limited number of operational facilities are the main reasons. Due to technically more complex processes, the EROEI for oil shale is below the EROEI of about 20:1 for conventional oil extraction at the wellhead.
482:
Big-Thompson project, average prices per share (0.7 acre-feet (860 m)/share) increased from some $ 2,000 in 1990 to more than $ 12,000 in mid-2003 (constant 2001 dollars). CBT Prices from 2001 to 2006 has had a range of $ 10,000 to $ 14,000 per share, or $ 14,000 to $ 20,000 per acre foot. At $ 10,000 per acre foot, capital costs for water rights to produce 2.5 million barrels per day (400
261:, was estimated to achieve break-even financial feasibility operating at 30% capacity, assuming a crude oil price of $ 21 per barrel or higher. At 50% utilization, the project was expected to be economic at a price of $ 18 per barrel, while at full capacity, it could be economic at a price of $ 13 per barrel. However, instead of Alberta Taciuk Processor VKG proceeded with a
122:
417:
A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the different oil shale deposits to vary between 0.7β13.3:1. More recent studies estimates the EROEI of oil shales to be 1β2:1 or 2β16:1 β depending on if self-energy is counted as a cost or internal energy is excluded and only purchased energy is counted as input.
453:
Development of oil shale resources will require significant quantities of water for mine and plant operations, reclamation, supporting infrastructure, and associated economic growth. Above-ground retorting typically consumes between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil,
108:
of shale oil ranges from as high as US$ 95 per barrel to as low US$ 25 per barrel, although there is no recent confirmation of the latter figure. The industry is proceeding cautiously, due to the losses incurred during the last major investment into oil shale in the early 1980s, when a subsequent
241:
could become competitive at prices over $ 30 per barrel ($ 190/m). However, Shell reported in 2007 that the cost of creating an underground freeze wall to contain groundwater contamination had significantly escalated. Anyway, as the commercial scale production by Shell is not foreseen until
196:
quality and extraction efficiency. In order for the operation to be profitable, the price of crude oil would need to remain above these levels. The analysis also discusses the expectation that processing costs would drop after the complex was established. The hypothetical unit would see a cost
481:
basin. Though scarce, water in the western United States is treated as a commodity which can be bought and sold in a competitive market. Royal Dutch Shell has been reported to be buying groundwater rights in
Colorado as it prepares to drill for oil in the shale deposits there. In the Colorado
441:, unlike external energy used in the process. Another opinion is that internal energy is used for performing useful work and therefore should be added to the calculation. It might also be argued that internal energy should be included as energy invested because it contributes to CO
437:), and therefore reducing the use of other fuels (external energy). There are different views as to if the internal energy should be added to the calculation as cost or not. One opinion is that internal energy should not be counted as an energy cost because it does not have an
398:. The article stated that coal liquefaction was less expensive, generated more oil, and created fewer environmental impacts than oil shale extraction. It cited a conversion ratio of 650 liters (170 U.S. gal; 140 imp gal) of oil per one
287: m/d) of oil in late 2007), stating that "the first-generation facility is the hardest, both technically and economically". According to the United States Department of Energy, in 1980s the costs of a 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m/d)
80:
Due to the volatile prices and high capital costs few deposits can be exploited economically without subsidies. However, some countries, such as
Estonia, Brazil, and China, operate oil-shale industries, while some others, including
217: m/d) during each year after the start of commercial production, the costs would then be expected to decline to $ 35β48 per barrel ($ 220β300/m) within 12 years. After achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels (160
249:
were projected to be in the range of $ 11.3 to $ 12.4 per barrel, including capital costs and operation costs over a projected 30-year lifetime. However, the project has been suspended due to environmental concerns.
298:
The RAND Corporation assumes that the development of 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m/d) processing plant in the United States will take 12 years, while to achieve the level of 1 million barrels per day
294:
The new 100,000 tonnes shale oil per year retort built by VKG cost EEK 1.1 billion (β¬70.3 million); however, it is located in the existing production site and uses the existing infrastructure.
524:
wastes. Depending on reaction conditions, the co-pyrolysis may lead to higher conversion ratios and thus lower production costs, and in some cases solves the problem of utilization of certain wastes.
387:
production. However, in the early 21st century, USA, Canada and Jordan were planning or had started shale oil production test projects, and
Australia was considering restarting oil shale production.
363:
to stay as high as US$ 70 a barrel, and invested considerable sums in the oil shale industry. World production of oil shale reached a peak of 46 million tonnes in 1980. Due to competition from
1011:
265:
which production price level is not disclosed. Production costs in China have been reported to be as low as less than $ 25 per barrel, although there is no recent confirmation of this figure.
1557:
433:
Internal energy (or self-energy) is energy released by the oil shale conversion process that is used to power that operation (e.g. obtained by combustion of conversion by-products such as
1640:
Proposed Oil Shale and Tar Sands
Resource Management Plan Amendments to Address Land Use Allocations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming and Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement
741:
566:"A study on the EU oil shale industry viewed in the light of the Estonian experience. A report by EASAC to the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy of the European Parliament"
1444:
891:
474: m/d) oil shale industry would require 180,000 to 420,000 acre-feet (220,000,000 to 520,000,000 m) of water per year, depending on location and processes used.
849:
Oil Shale
Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues. Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the United States Department of Energy
2034:
801:
410:
A measure of the viability of oil shale as a fuel source is the ratio of the energy produced to the energy used converting it (Energy
Returned on Energy Invested -
538:
1519:
Brandt, Adam R. (2009). "Converting Green River oil shale to liquid fuels with the
Alberta Taciuk Processor: energy inputs and greenhouse gas emissions".
1018:
291:
processing complex ranged from $ 8β12 billion at 2005 prices. It is estimated that the current capital costs are $ 3β10 billion at 2005 prices.
611:
1766:
1241:
1682:
864:
749:
628:
1312:
1992:
1397:
500:
Several co-pyrolysis processes to increase efficiency of oil shale retorting have been proposed or tested. In
Estonia, the co-pyrolysis of
1739:
1715:
1145:
808:
776:
138:
504:
with renewable fuel (wood waste), as well as with plastic and rubber wastes (tyres), has been tested. Co-pyrolysis of oil shale with
1499:
383:
because of low oil-prices and increased expenses. Because of the losses in 1980s, companies were reluctant to make new invests in
235:
1665:
901:
1732:
62:. Although usually oil shale economics is understood as shale oil extraction economics, the wider approach evaluates usage of
192:
reclamation), would range between $ 70β95 ($ 440β600/m, adjusted to 2005 values). This estimate considers varying levels of
1842:
1743:
812:
478:
729:
154:
1706:
1138:
816:
953:"New directions for shale oil:path to a secure new oil supply well into this century: on the example of Australia"
2109:
1643:
1564:
1285:
1012:"Strategic Significance of America's Oil Shale Resource. Volume II Oil Shale Resources, Technology and Economics"
505:
157:
estimates, based on the various pilot projects, that investment and operating costs would be similar to those of
66:
as a whole, including for the oil-shale-fired power generation and production of by-products during retorting or
1803:
445:
emissions. However, EROEI then becomes a measure of environmental acceptability rather than economic viability.
180:, the cost of producing a barrel of oil at a surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine,
153:
processing would be economic at prices above $ 35 per barrel. These estimates assume a return rate of 15%. The
2028:
376:
254:
246:
161:, that means would be economic at prices above $ 60 per barrel at current costs. This figure does not account
426:
processing it may be even as low as 2:1. Royal Dutch Shell has reported an expected EROEI about 3β4:1 on its
1290:
1176:"Global oil shale issues and perspectives. Synthesis of the Symposium on Oil Shale. 18β19 November, Tallinn"
1068:
634:
1771:
134:
1814:
1780:
1579:
1416:
1358:
1257:
1037:
584:
1632:
1110:
1459:
620:
166:
130:
59:
565:
245:
At full-scale production, the production costs for one barrel of light crude oil of the
Australia's
1941:
1882:
1183:
1076:
960:
896:
668:
380:
158:
2104:
2083:
1966:
1932:
Aboulkas, A.; El Harfi, K.; El
Bouadili, A.; Benchanaa, M.; Mokhlisse, A.; Outzourit, A. (2007).
1907:
1491:
1316:
1208:
985:
693:
533:
74:
2009:
1443:
Cleveland, Cutler J.; Costanza, Robert; Hall, Charles A. S.; Kaufmann, Robert (31 August 1984).
1339:
1235:"Slow Radio-Frequency Processing of Large Oil Shale Volumes to Produce Petroleum-like Shale Oil"
2075:
1958:
1899:
1678:
1538:
1521:
1483:
1475:
1200:
1085:
977:
860:
745:
685:
624:
274:
231:
454:
depending on technology. For an oil shale industry producing 2.5 million barrels per day (400
2067:
1950:
1891:
1530:
1467:
1192:
969:
856:
677:
438:
277:
industry has been drawn (the latter enterprise generated over 1 million barrels per day (160
177:
952:
766:
660:
165:, which will add additional cost. According to the New Policies Scenario introduced in its
1827:
1607:
1592:
1429:
1371:
1270:
1050:
929:
847:
597:
356:
355:
due to the low price of oil and other competitive fuels. In the United States, during the
262:
207: m) were produced. Assuming an increase in output of 25 thousand barrels per day (4.0
1669:
846:
Bartis, James T.; LaTourrette, Tom; Dixon, Lloyd; Peterson, D.J.; Cecchine, Gary (2005).
564:
Francu, Juraj; Harvie, Barbra; Laenen, Ben; Siirde, Andres; Veiderma, Mihkel (May 2007).
2052:
1934:"Kinetics of co-pyrolysis of Tarfaya (Morocco) oil shale with high-density polyethylene"
1463:
1175:
129:
The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the cost of
38:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
1776:
1115:
771:
364:
162:
110:
1933:
1874:
2098:
2087:
1212:
989:
434:
105:
1970:
1911:
1398:"An Assessment of the Energy Return on Investment (EROI) of Oil Shale. Final Report"
697:
1495:
509:
352:
924:
133:
in a given region comes in below the price of crude oil or its other substitutes (
1471:
402:
of coal, as against 150 liters (40 U.S. gal) per one ton of shale oil.
1234:
189:
1991:
Ozdemir, M.; A. Akar, A. AydoΔan, E. Kalafatoglu; E. Ekinci (7 November 2006).
1853:
1804:"The Sale And Leasing Of Water Rights In Western States: An Update To Mid-2003"
367:, several investments became economically unfeasible. On 2 May 1982, known as "
227: m), its costs would decline further to $ 30β40 per barrel ($ 190β250/m).
372:
360:
309: m/d) will take at least 20 years and 3 million barrels per day (480
146:
2079:
1962:
1903:
1875:"Co-liquefaction of kukersite oil shale and pine wood in supercritical water"
1542:
1479:
1204:
1089:
981:
689:
173:, expected by 2035, will add additional $ 7.50 per barrel cost of shale oil.
521:
501:
384:
344:
82:
67:
63:
2071:
1487:
973:
681:
661:"Jordan's Experience in Oil Shale Studies Employing Different Technologies"
1954:
1895:
1196:
332:
242:
2025, the real price needed to make production economic remains unclear.
185:
145:
processing would be economic at sustained average world oil prices above
517:
513:
394:(ISSN 0755-561X), shale oil production was unfavorably compared to the
348:
327:
In the second half of the 20th century, oil shale production ceased in
258:
193:
121:
1534:
1069:"Viru Keemia Grupp opened a new oil shale processing plant in Estonia"
1010:
Johnson, Harry R.; Crawford, Peter M.; Bunger, James W. (March 2004).
2005:
340:
336:
328:
181:
94:
90:
86:
101:, are contemplating establishing or re-establishing this industry.
2001:
737:
411:
98:
73:
The economic feasibility of oil shale is highly dependent on the
477:
The largest deposit of oil shale in the United States is in the
395:
273:
A comparison of the proposed American oil shale industry to the
1802:
Adams, Jennifer; Crews, Dotti; Cummings, Ronald (April 2004).
399:
18:
925:"Shell shelves oil-shale application to refine its research"
197:
reduction of 35β70% after its first 500 million barrels (79
16:
Economic feasibility of oil shale extraction and processing
1139:"Is Oil Shale The Answer To America's Peak-Oil Challenge?"
892:"Shell's ingenious approach to oil shale is pretty slick"
418:
According to the World Energy Outlook 2010, the EROEI of
1445:"Energy and the U.S. Economy: A Biophysical Perspective"
2008:: Jordanian Natural Resources Authority. Archived from
571:. European Academies Science Advisory Council: 5, 18β23
492: m/d) would range between $ 1.8-4.2 billion.
1809:. North Georgia Water Planning and Policy Center: 10.
516:). Some tests involve co-pyrolysis of oil shale with
508:
has been tested also in Morocco and Turkey. Israel's
1017:. United States Department of Energy. Archived from
1396:Cleveland, Cutler J.; O'Connor, Peter (June 2010).
885:
883:
1994:Copyrolysis of Goynuk oil shale and thermoplastics
512:co-pyrolyses oil shale with oil refinery residue (
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1633:"Chapter 4. Effects of Oil Shale Technologies"
539:Environmental impact of the oil shale industry
1666:United States Office of Technology Assessment
8:
2033:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1873:Veski, R.; Palu, V.; Kruusement, K. (2006).
1727:
1725:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1746:β Strategic Unconventional Fuels Task Force
1286:"Coaxing oil from huge U.S. shale deposits"
1062:
1060:
796:
794:
1111:"A Reporter at Large:Unconventional Crude"
1067:Aleksandrov, Julia; Purga, Jaanus (2010).
1942:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
1883:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
1868:
1866:
1646:. September 2008. pp. 4β3. FES 08-32
1514:
1512:
1184:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
1077:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
961:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
724:
722:
720:
718:
716:
714:
669:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal
365:cheap conventional petroleum in the 1980s
169:, a price of $ 50 per tonne of emitted CO
2066:(2S). Estonian Academy Publishers: 332.
1852:. Stratecon, Inc.: 10β12. Archived from
120:
1733:"Fact Sheet: Oil Shale Water Resources"
1671:An Assessment of Oil Shale Technologies
549:
422:processing is typically 4β5:1 while of
176:According to a survey conducted by the
58:deals with the economic feasibility of
2026:
2000:. International Oil Shale Conference.
1823:
1812:
1588:
1577:
1425:
1414:
1367:
1356:
1315:. Geoscience Australia. Archived from
1266:
1255:
1242:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
1046:
1035:
841:
839:
837:
802:"Fact Sheet: U.S. Oil Shale Economics"
593:
582:
125:Real and Nominal Oil Prices, 1980-2008
767:"The Cautious U.S. Boom in Oil Shale"
765:Krauss, Clifford (11 December 2006).
390:In a 1972 publication by the journal
7:
1284:Collier, Robert (4 September 2006).
559:
557:
555:
553:
2053:"Estonian National Energy Strategy"
1606:Reiss, Spencer (13 December 2005).
1233:Burnham, Alan K. (20 August 2003).
890:Seebach, Linda (2 September 2005).
60:oil shale extraction and processing
1556:Shell Frontier Oil & Gas Inc.
139:United States Department of Energy
14:
1708:Energy Demands on Water Resources
779:from the original on 12 July 2022
319: m/d) around 30 years.
1765:Berfield, Susan (12 June 2008).
506:high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
375:canceled its US$ 5 billion
23:
1403:. Western Resource Advocates: 2
923:Lofholm, Nancy (16 June 2007).
113:left the projects uneconomic.
1:
1313:"Shale oil. AIMR Report 2006"
117:Break-even price of crude oil
1841:Smith, Rodney (April 2006).
1744:Office of Petroleum Reserves
1472:10.1126/science.225.4665.890
813:Office of Petroleum Reserves
188:, supporting utilities, and
155:International Energy Agency
2126:
1558:"Environmental Assessment"
1340:"Review on oil shale data"
613:Survey of energy resources
1843:"Water Market Indicators"
1687:. NTIS order #PB80-210115
1644:Bureau of Land Management
1565:Bureau of Land Management
734:World Energy Outlook 2010
623:. 2007. pp. 93β115.
167:World Energy Outlook 2010
111:collapse in the oil price
104:The production cost of a
75:price of conventional oil
32:This article needs to be
1608:"Tapping the Rock Field"
1338:Laherrère, Jean (2005).
377:Colony Shale Oil Project
255:Alberta Taciuk Processor
1291:San Francisco Chronicle
951:Schmidt, S. J. (2003).
2072:10.3176/oil.2007.2S.13
1822:Cite journal requires
1772:Bloomberg Businessweek
1587:Cite journal requires
1424:Cite journal requires
1366:Cite journal requires
1265:Cite journal requires
1045:Cite journal requires
974:10.3176/oil.2003.3S.06
682:10.3176/oil.2003.3S.09
676:(3 Special): 360β370.
659:Bsieco, M. S. (2003).
592:Cite journal requires
126:
2060:Bulletin des Sciences
1955:10.3176/oil.2007.1.04
1896:10.3176/oil.2006.3.04
1767:"There Will Be Water"
1197:10.3176/oil.2003.1.09
257:which was planned by
253:The project of a new
239:extraction technology
124:
70:upgrading processes.
1859:on 25 February 2009.
1677:. DIANE Publishing.
1174:Brendow, K. (2003).
744:. pp. 165β169.
621:World Energy Council
396:liquefaction of coal
392:PΓ©trole Informations
359:businesses expected
131:shale-oil production
2051:A. Hamburg (2007).
1464:1984Sci...225..890C
1319:on 13 February 2007
1024:on 21 February 2014
897:Rocky Mountain News
381:Parachute, Colorado
323:Previous investment
234:announced that its
141:estimates that the
56:Oil shale economics
1522:Energy & Fuels
1119:. 12 November 2007
534:Price of petroleum
159:Canadian oil sands
149:54 per barrel and
127:
1684:978-1-4289-2463-5
1535:10.1021/ef900678d
1529:(12): 6253β6258.
1505:on 26 March 2009.
1458:(4665): 890β897.
1148:. 8 February 2008
866:978-0-8330-3848-7
751:978-92-64-08624-1
630:978-0-946121-26-7
275:Alberta oil-sands
232:Royal Dutch Shell
85:, United States,
53:
52:
2117:
2110:Energy economics
2091:
2057:
2039:
2038:
2032:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2014:
1999:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1938:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1879:
1870:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1850:Water Strategist
1847:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1825:
1820:
1818:
1810:
1808:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1779:. Archived from
1762:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1737:
1729:
1720:
1719:
1713:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1676:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1637:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1562:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1516:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1498:. Archived from
1449:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1427:
1422:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1402:
1393:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1364:
1362:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1344:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1268:
1263:
1261:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1244:. UCRL-ID-155045
1239:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1180:
1171:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1143:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1073:
1064:
1055:
1054:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1023:
1016:
1007:
1001:
1000:
998:
996:
957:
948:
942:
941:
939:
937:
920:
914:
913:
911:
909:
904:on 30 April 2007
900:. Archived from
887:
878:
877:
875:
873:
857:RAND Corporation
854:
843:
832:
831:
829:
827:
822:on 28 March 2009
821:
815:. Archived from
806:
798:
789:
788:
786:
784:
762:
756:
755:
726:
709:
708:
706:
704:
665:
656:
650:
649:
647:
645:
639:
633:. Archived from
618:
608:
602:
601:
595:
590:
588:
580:
578:
576:
570:
561:
488:
487:
470:
469:
460:
459:
439:opportunity cost
315:
314:
305:
304:
283:
282:
223:
222:
213:
212:
203:
202:
178:RAND Corporation
135:break-even price
48:
45:
39:
27:
26:
19:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2095:
2094:
2055:
2050:
2047:
2042:
2029:cite conference
2025:
2018:
2016:
2012:
1997:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1936:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1916:
1914:
1877:
1872:
1871:
1864:
1856:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1821:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1784:
1783:on 15 June 2008
1764:
1763:
1759:
1749:
1747:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1723:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1674:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1649:
1647:
1635:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1616:
1614:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1586:
1576:
1569:
1567:
1560:
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