Shale oil extraction

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heated by the rising hot gases, which pass through the descending oil shale, thereby causing decomposition of the kerogen at about 500 °C (932 °F) . Shale oil mist, evolved gases and cooled combustion gases are removed from the top of the retort then moved to separation equipment. Condensed shale oil is collected, while non-condensable gas is recycled and used to carry heat up the retort. In the lower part of the retort, air is injected for the combustion which heats the spent oil shale and gases to between 700 °C (1,292 °F) and 900 °C (1,650 °F). Cold recycled gas may enter the bottom of the retort to cool the shale ash. The Union A and Superior Direct processes depart from this pattern. In the Union A process, oil shale is fed through the bottom of the retort and a pump moves it upward. In the Superior Direct process, oil shale is processed in a horizontal, segmented, doughnut-shaped

1487: 1410: 1320: 1727: 49: 1362: 963:: "Ex-situ" technologies are sometimes classified as vertical or horizontal. Vertical retorts are usually shaft kilns where a bed of shale moves from top to bottom by gravity. Horizontal retorts are usually horizontal rotating drums or screws where shale moves from one end to the other. As a general rule, vertical retorts process lumps using a gas heat carrier, while horizontal retorts process fines using solid heat carrier. 1022:, since combustion of char on the spent shale and heat recovered from the shale ash and evolved gases can provide all the heat requirements of the retort. These technologies can achieve 80–90% of Fischer assay yield. Two well-established shale oil industries use internal combustion technologies: Kiviter process facilities have been operated continuously in Estonia since the 1920s, and a number of Chinese companies operate 1900: 7429: 1763:, supporting utilities, and spent oil shale reclamation), would be in a range of $ 70–95 per barrel ($ 440–600/m), adjusted to 2005 values. Assuming a gradual increase in output after the start of commercial production, the analysis projects a gradual reduction in processing costs to $ 30–40 per barrel ($ 190–250/m) after achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels (160 331:(Mesue the Younger) wrote of his experiments in extracting oil from "some kind of bituminous shale". The first shale oil extraction patent was granted by the English Crown in 1684 to three people who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone". Modern industrial extraction of shale oil originated in 1047:

then mixed with the raw oil shale to cause the shale to decompose at about 500 °C (932 °F). Oil vapour and shale oil gas are separated from the solids and cooled to condense and collect the oil. Heat recovered from the combustion gases and shale ash may be used to dry and preheat the raw oil shale before it is mixed with the hot recycle solids.

515:—a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen. Burning the char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash. Spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture. The composition of the oil shale may lend added value to the extraction process through the recovery of by-products, including 1810:

wastes are retorted along with the oil shale. Some modified technologies propose combining a fluidized bed retort with a circulated fluidized bed furnace for burning the by-products of pyrolysis (char and oil shale gas) and thereby improving oil yield, increasing throughput, and decreasing retorting

1134:

employ this technology. In addition to not accepting fine particles as feed, these technologies do not utilize the potential heat of combusting the char on the spent shale and thus must burn more valuable fuels. However, due to the lack of combustion of the spent shale, the oil shale does not exceed

1029:

Common drawbacks of internal combustion technologies are that the combustible oil shale gas is diluted by combustion gases and particles smaller than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) can not be processed. Uneven distribution of gas across the retort can result in blockages when hot spots cause particles

1074:

Because the hot recycle solids are heated in a separate furnace, the oil shale gas from these technologies is not diluted with combustion exhaust gas. Another advantage is that there is no limit on the smallest particles that the retort can process, thus allowing all the crushed feed to be used. One

1046:

retorts, fed by fine oil shale particles generally having a diameter of less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in); some technologies use particles even smaller than 2.5 millimeters (0.10 in). The recycled particles are heated in a separate chamber or vessel to about 800 °C (1,470 °F) and

1565:

The properties of raw shale oil vary depending on the composition of the parent oil shale and the extraction technology used. Like conventional oil, shale oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, and it is characterized using bulk properties of the oil. Shale oil usually contains large quantities

1006:

Internal combustion technologies burn materials (typically char and oil shale gas) within a vertical shaft retort to supply heat for pyrolysis. Typically raw oil shale particles between 12 millimetres (0.5 in) and 75 millimetres (3.0 in) in size are fed into the top of the retort and are

1514:

is many tens of meters, thereby overcoming the thermal diffusion times needed for conductive heating. Its drawbacks include intensive electrical demand and the possibility that groundwater or char would absorb undue amounts of the energy. Radio frequency processing in conjunction with critical

1125:

In general, externally generated hot gas technologies are similar to internal combustion technologies in that they also process oil shale lumps in vertical shaft kilns. Significantly, though, the heat in these technologies is delivered by gases heated outside the retort vessel, and therefore the

575:

retorting processes, it begins at 300 °C (570 °F) and proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures. The amount of oil produced is the highest when the temperature ranges between 480 and 520 °C (900 and 970 °F). The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil generally

1116:

processes by operating within the confines of an earthen structure. A hot gas circulated through parallel pipes heats the oil shale rubble. An installation within the empty space created by mining would permit rapid reclamation of the topography. A general drawback of conduction through a wall

956:

processing technologies may be differentiated by the size of the oil shale particles that are fed into the retorts. As a rule, gas heat carrier technologies process oil shale lumps varying in diameter from 10 to 100 millimeters (0.4 to 3.9 in), while solid heat carrier and wall conduction

562:

fluids for this purpose. Two strategies are used to reduce, and even eliminate, external heat energy requirements: the oil shale gas and char by-products generated by pyrolysis may be burned as a source of energy, and the heat contained in hot spent oil shale and oil shale ash may be used to

267:

The earliest description of the process dates to the 10th century. In 1684, England granted the first formal extraction process patent. Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century. The industry shrank in the mid-20th century following the discovery of large

1526:

Microwave heating technologies are based on the same principles as radio wave heating, although it is believed that radio wave heating is an improvement over microwave heating because its energy can penetrate farther into the oil shale formation. The microwave heating process was tested by

1058:

processes, the spent oil shale is burnt in a separate furnace and the resulting hot ash is separated from the combustion gas and mixed with oil shale particles in a rotating kiln. Combustion gases from the furnace are used to dry the oil shale in a dryer before mixing with hot ash. The

691:: Based on the material used to deliver heat energy to the oil shale, processing technologies have been classified into gas heat carrier, solid heat carrier, wall conduction, reactive fluid, and volumetric heating methods. Heat carrier methods can be sub-classified as direct or indirect. 1606:. It has been described that raw shale oil has a mild carcinogenic potential which is comparable to some intermediate refinery products, while upgraded shale oil has lower carcinogenic potential as most of the polycyclic aromatics are believed to broken down by hydrogenation. 1785:

announced in 2006 that its Shell ICP technology would realize a profit when crude oil prices are higher than $ 30 per barrel ($ 190/m), while some technologies at full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $ 20 per barrel ($ 130/m).

1754:

processing complex are $ 3–10 billion. The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the shale-oil production cost in a given region is lower than the price of petroleum or its other substitutes. According to a survey conducted by the

1910:

Oil-shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material. In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include

1377:

or another heat transfer medium is circulated through a series of pipes placed below the oil shale layer to be extracted. The system combines horizontal wells, through which steam is passed, and vertical wells, which provide both vertical heat transfer through

1594:

at temperatures between 24 and 27 °C (75 and 81 °F), while conventional crude oil is pourable at temperatures between −60 and 30 °C (−76 and 86 °F); this property affects shale oil's ability to be transported in existing pipelines.

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created in the oil shale formation which then forms a heating element. Heating wells are placed in a parallel row with a second horizontal well intersecting them at their toe. This allows opposing electrical charges to be applied at either end.

1895:

during processing, transport, and support activities. In 2002, about 97% of air pollution, 86% of total waste and 23% of water pollution in Estonia came from the power industry, which uses oil shale as the main resource for its power production.

1609:

Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments before it can be sent to a conventional

989:

processes involve drilling and fracturing the target oil shale deposit to create voids in the deposit. The voids enable a better flow of gases and fluids through the deposit, thereby increasing the volume and quality of the shale oil produced.

1091:

These technologies transfer heat to the oil shale by conducting it through the retort wall. The shale feed usually consists of fine particles. Their advantage lies in the fact that retort vapors are not combined with combustion exhaust. The

1838:). A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil shale deposits as varying between 0.7 and 13.3; Some companies and newer technologies assert an EROEI between 3 and 10. According to the World Energy Outlook 2010, the EROEI of 580:

process, which might take several months of heating, decomposition may be conducted at temperatures as low as 250 °C (480 °F). Temperatures below 600 °C (1,110 °F) are preferable, as this prevents the decomposition of

1251:

to distribute heat through the target area. Shale oil is then recovered through vertical wells drilled into the formation. These technologies are potentially able to extract more shale oil from a given area of land than conventional

1436:, injects heated carbon dioxide into the formation via drilled wells and to heat the formation through a series of horizontal fractures through which the gas is circulated. General Synfuels International has proposed the 4185: 4149: 5491: 1833:

A possible measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy in the extracted oil to the energy used in its mining and processing (Energy Returned on Energy Invested, or

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To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes, in which other materials such as

570:

processing, oil shale is crushed into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for better extraction. The temperature at which decomposition of oil shale occurs depends on the time-scale of the process. In

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Mining oil shale involves a number of environmental impacts, more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining. These include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent

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and hydrogenation. Laboratory results indicate that these technologies can often obtain significantly higher oil yields than pyrolysis processes. Drawbacks are the additional cost and complexity of

1966:

stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons (7.6 to 37.9 L; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 t) of processed oil shale.

674:: The method of transferring heat from combustion products to the oil shale may be classified as direct or indirect. While methods that allow combustion products to contact the oil shale within the 398:, closed in 1991. The US program was restarted in 2003, followed by a commercial leasing program in 2005 permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in accordance with the 2600: 2139:"Studies of the Scottish oil shale industry. Vol.1 History of the industry, working conditions, and mineralogy of Scottish and Green River formation shales. Final report on US Department of Energy" 4339: 1350:

by a freeze wall consisting of wells filled with a circulating super-chilled fluid. Disadvantages of this process are large electrical power consumption, extensive water use, and the risk of

1691:, most shale oil was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad wood 2215: 5714:

Proposed Oil Shale and Tar Sands Resource Management Plan Amendments to Address Land Use Allocations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming and Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement

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Proposed Oil Shale and Tar Sands Resource Management Plan Amendments to Address Land Use Allocations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming and Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement

4324:

Carlson, R. D.; Blase, E. F.; McLendon, T. R. (1981-04-22). "Development of the IIT Research Institute RF heating process for in situ oil shale/tar sand fuel extraction–an overview".

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generation can be avoided for some oil shales. Also, these technologies tend to be the more stable and easier to control than internal combustion or hot solid recycle technologies.

6550: 5361: 2860: 2413:

A study on the EU oil shale industry viewed in the light of the Estonian experience. A report by EASAC to the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy of the European Parliament

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for heating the oil shale layer to between 340 and 370 °C (650 and 700 °F) over a period of approximately four years. The processing area is isolated from surrounding

4198: 323:, used in the mid-to-late 19th century, was one of the first vertical oil shale retorts. Its design is typical of retorts used in the end of 19th and beginning of 20th century. 7395: 1931:

pollution. Among the water contaminants commonly associated with oil shale processing are oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons. Commonly detected examples include

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per day) of shale oil. Australia, the US, and Canada have tested shale oil extraction techniques via demonstration projects and are planning commercial implementation;

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Oil Shale Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues. Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the United States Department of Energy

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processing technologies, as the wells can reach greater depths than surface mines. They present an opportunity to recover shale oil from low-grade deposits that

3765:"Gasification of Oil Shale from Aleksinac Using Plasma Technology. Plasma-Allo-Autothermal Gasification and Plasma Steam Gasification Process Simulation Results" 1590:, and some deposits contain more heteroatoms. Mineral particles and metals are often present as well. Generally, the oil is less fluid than crude oil, becoming 5518: 4953: 4646: 5423: 6063: 5937: 4270: 1117:

technologies is that the retorts are more costly when scaled-up due to the resulting large amount of heat conducting walls made of high-temperature alloys.

6545: 6540: 6525: 6520: 6068: 1510:. Deeper volumes could be processed at slower heating rates by installations spaced at tens of meters. The concept presumes a radio frequency at which the 1038:

Hot recycled solids technologies deliver heat to the oil shale by recycling hot solid particles—typically oil shale ash. These technologies usually employ

6490: 4938:

Fractional distillation yields mainly high molecular weight hydrocarbons, which can then be cracked to yield desirable hydrocarbons in the gasoline range.

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staged electrically heated retort consists of individual inter-connected heating chambers, stacked atop each other. Its principal advantage lies in its

4350: 3770:. 5th International Workshop and Exhibition on Plasma Assisted Combustion (IWEPAC) (Report). Applied Plasma Technologies. pp. 58–60. Archived from 604:, or a combination of these. Thermal dissolution involves the application of solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures, increasing oil output by 4065: 1469:) uses electrical heating with elements of both wall conduction and volumetric heating methods. It injects an electrically conductive material such as 1163:(chemical structures in the oil shale that are prone to form char during retorting but have not yet done so). Reactive fluid technologies include the 5296:

Cleveland, Cutler J.; Costanza, Robert; Hall, Charles A. S.; Kaufmann, Robert (1984-08-31). "Energy and the U.S. Economy: A Biophysical Perspective".

1397:. The cells, placed in the oil shale formation, are fueled by natural gas during a warm-up period and afterward by oil shale gas generated by its own 2639: 1919:. Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels. Experimental 492:). In this process, oil shale is heated in the absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors and non-condensable 6114: 6083: 6078: 1958:. Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale-oil. A 2008 programmatic 1676:

can be first be removed by water extraction. Upgrading shale oil into transport fuels requires adjusting hydrogen–carbon ratios by adding hydrogen (

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Sims, G. K. and E.J. O'Loughlin. 1989. Degradation of pyridines in the environment. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control. 19(4): 309–340.

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technologies heat oil shale underground by injecting hot fluids into the rock formation, or by using linear or planar heating sources followed by

5706: 4447: 3575: 6731: 6555: 4676: 4303: 2228: 2104: 1503: 626:: Based on the treatment of raw oil shale by heat and solvents the methods are classified as pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution. 6139: 5369: 4931: 4654: 4591: 4558: 4521: 4483: 4425: 4231: 4042: 3698: 3374: 3296: 3036: 2472: 2386: 2340: 2265: 2192: 2054: 1155:

state. Reactive fluid technologies are suitable for processing oil shales with a low hydrogen content. In these technologies, hydrogen gas (H

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located either at the surface or at depth in other wells. The passage of the current through the oil shale formation results in resistive

5065:

Tiikma, Laine; Johannes, Ille; Luik, Hans (March 2006). "Fixation of chlorine evolved in pyrolysis of PVC waste by Estonian oil shales".

2868: 6109: 5838: 1759:, the cost of producing shale oil at a hypothetical surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, retorting plant, 632:: A frequently used distinction considers whether processing is done above or below ground, and classifies the technologies broadly as 405:

As of 2010, shale oil extraction is in operation in Estonia, Brazil, and China. In 2008, their industries produced about 930,000

7243: 6922: 6638: 4960: 3330: 2611: 2557: 2149: 1747: 390:

in the mid 20th century brought most oil shale industries to a halt. In 1944, the US recommenced shale oil extraction as part of its

5489:

http://www.westernresearch.org/uploadedFiles/Energy_and_Environmental_Technology/Unconventional_Fuels/Oil_Shale/MercuryinOilShale.pdf

1864:

The water requirements of extraction processes are an additional economic consideration in regions where water is a scarce resource.

1311:

in 1972 at Logan Wash, Colorado. Newer technologies are being explored that use a variety of heat sources and heat delivery systems.

276:

at the beginning of the 21st century have led to renewed interest, accompanied by the development and testing of newer technologies.

7390: 6694: 6447: 5609: 4672:"Selective Biodegradation of S and N Heterocycles by a Recombinant Rhodococcus erythropolis Strain Containing Carbazole Dioxygenase" 1830:

in Estonia, co-generate electricity from the waste heat and process high grade oil shale that yields more oil per shale processed.

1695:. As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser extent in the production of various chemicals. 741: 308: 3764: 347:. During the late 19th century, plants were built in Australia, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. The 1894 invention of the 7279: 6932: 6427: 6124: 6119: 5930: 5467: 5268: 3455: 2977: 1599: 1495: 1339: 929: 859: 5834: 4256:

Symington, William A.; Olgaard, David L.; Otten, Glenn A.; Phillips, Tom C.; Thomas, Michele M.; Yeakel, Jesse D. (2008-04-20).

660:

processing converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit, following which it is then extracted via

6937: 6495: 6380: 4544: 3583:. 28th United States Association for Energy Economics/International Association for Energy Economics North America Conference. 4921: 3230: 7405: 7176: 6842: 6395: 6313: 6240: 5386: 3631: 1959: 1892: 1433: 649: 391: 344: 2829: 1927:

technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including

1746:

The dominant question for shale oil production is under what conditions shale oil is economically viable. According to the

5812: 5777: 682:, methods that burn materials external to the retort to heat another material that contacts the oil shale are described as 394:. These industries continued until oil prices fell sharply in the 1980s. The last oil shale retort in the US, operated by 7460: 7455: 6613: 6510: 6500: 6422: 4511: 3072: 2738: 2138: 1382:

of converted shale oil and a means to collect the produced hydrocarbons. Heat is supplied by combustion of natural gas or

889: 761: 737: 1276:, In Australia, during 1921, with some success, but his ambitions were well ahead of technologies available at the time. 7385: 7380: 6917: 6902: 6351: 4964: 3329:. 26th Oil Shale Symposium, Colorado Energy Research Institute, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, Oct. 16–18, 2006. 2224: 1849:

To increase the EROEI, several combined technologies were proposed. These include the usage of process waste heat, e.g.

1814:

Other ways of improving the economics of shale oil extraction could be to increase the size of the operation to achieve

778: 5676: 5507: 7432: 7400: 5923: 5773: 5349: 1979: 1390: 1358:. 270 cubic meters (1,700 bbl) of oil were extracted in 2004 at a 9-by-12-meter (30 by 40 ft) testing area. 867: 4968: 1175:. In the IGT Hytort oil shale is processed in a high-pressure hydrogen environment. The Chattanooga process uses a 668:

processing, it does not involve mining or spent oil shale disposal aboveground as spent oil shale stays underground.

4257: 6987: 6588: 6573: 6535: 6296: 6173: 3493: 1924: 5907:

Concerning potential leases of Federal oil sands lands in Utah and oil shale lands in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado.

4994:"New directions for shale oil:path to a secure new oil supply well into this century: on the example of Australia" 1853:

or combustion of the residual carbon (char), and the usage of waste heat from other industrial processes, such as

7359: 6892: 6633: 6437: 5717: 3532: 3416: 2643: 1963: 1528: 1265: 503:. In addition, oil shale processing produces spent oil shale, which is a solid residue. Spent shale consists of 399: 2601:

Strategic significance of America's oil shale resource. Volume II: Oil shale resources, technology and economics

7465: 4003: 3864: 3821: 3817: 3746: 3723: 3554: 3511: 3358: 3106: 3059: 2896: 2346: 2046: 1983: 1715: 921: 489: 296: 176: 5641: 5272: 4670:

Bo Yu; Ping Xu; Shanshan Zhu; Xiaofeng Cai; Ying Wang; Li Li; Fuli Li; Xiaoyong Liu; Cuiqing Ma (March 2006).

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Secure Fuels from Domestic Resources: The Continuing Evolution of America's Oil Shale and Tar Sands Industries

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processing would be economic at prices above $ 35 per barrel. These estimates assume a return rate of 15%.

1151:. Despite this constraint, extraction using especially reactive fluids has been tested, including those in a 477:. The efficiencies of extraction processes are often evaluated by comparing their yields to the results of a 7410: 7284: 6341: 6333: 6284: 6235: 6155: 6040: 6035: 4223:

Plunkett's Energy Industry Almanac 2009: The Only Comprehensive Guide to the Energy & Utilities Industry

4193: 3385:– via Committee on Production Technologies for Liquid Transportation Fuels, Energy Engineering Board, 1470: 1273: 1172: 924: 317: 2640:"Nominations for Oil Shale Research Leases Demonstrate Significant Interest in Advancing Energy Technology" 1287:

extraction process was implemented without significant success in Germany. One of the earliest successful

694:

The following table shows extraction technologies classified by heating method, heat carrier and location (

6887: 6628: 6318: 6168: 6005: 5980: 2546: 1486: 1466: 1453: 1227:, or plasma electrolysis mode. The main benefit of these technologies is processing without using water. 1068: 1008: 790: 5904: 5050:

Tiikma, Laine; Johannes, Ille; Pryadka, Natalja (2002). "Co-pyrolysis of waste plastics with oil shale".

4186:"Single well, single gas phase technique is key to unique method of extracting oil vapors from oil shale" 2647: 2214:

Moody, Richard (2007-04-20). "Oil & Gas Shales, Definitions & Distribution In Time & Space".

7264: 6706: 6689: 6623: 6385: 6252: 6205: 6178: 6020: 5972: 4388: 3846: 3614:

Crawford, Peter M.; Biglarbigi, Khosrow; Killen, James R.; Dammer, Anton R.; Knaus, Emily (2008-09-22).

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such as natural gas, oil, or coal to generate this heat and experimental methods have used electricity,

295:

issues have also played a role in its development. Critics of shale oil extraction pose questions about

6306: 1292: 1112:

EcoShale In-Capsule Process combines surface mining with a lower-temperature heating method similar to

5721: 7161: 6831: 6593: 6475: 6274: 6257: 6183: 6015: 5681: 5438: 5433: 5307: 4685: 3856: 3809: 3546: 3503: 2332: 2001: 1665: 1661: 1474: 1441: 1308: 1180: 1093: 903: 854: 766: 710:

Classification of processing technologies by heating method and location (according to Alan Burnham)

605: 4649:, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory. p. 115. 2412: 2180:

A Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal

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technologies use hot gases heated above-ground and then injected into the oil shale formation. The

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technologies process fines which are particles less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) in diameter.

819: 810: 474: 328: 216: 164: 154: 1444:'s In Situ Vapor Extraction process uses similar principles of injection of high-temperature gas. 7156: 6578: 6188: 6088: 5946: 5577: 5331: 5184: 5150:

Aboulkas, A.; El Harfi, K.; El Bouadili, A.; Benchanaa, M.; Mokhlisse, A.; Outzourit, A. (2007).

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Soil vapor extraction using radio frequency heating: resource manual and technology demonstration

4070: 3205: 3155: 2489: 2016: 1996: 1815: 1370: 1296: 1259: 1109: 1097: 1019: 863: 850: 838: 586: 504: 395: 352: 348: 336: 273: 192: 188: 5898: 5750: 5226: 3656: 3468: 2751: 1159:) or hydrogen donors (chemicals that donate hydrogen during chemical reactions) react with coke 445: 299:

issues, such as waste disposal, extensive water use, waste water management, and air pollution.

4383: 3174: 2288: 351:, which was much less reliant on coal heat than its predecessors, marked the separation of the 7304: 6432: 6407: 6210: 6195: 5894: 5569: 5461:"Unconventional Oil and Gas Production. Opportunities and Challenges of Oil Shale Development" 5365: 5323: 5298: 5176: 5118: 5018: 4927: 4838: 4777: 4711: 4650: 4640: 4621: 4587: 4581: 4554: 4517: 4479: 4421: 4297:

Slow Radio-Frequency Processing of Large Oil Shale Volumes to Produce Petroleum-like Shale Oil

4227: 4038: 4028: 3990: 3694: 3684: 3645: 3370: 3334: 3292: 3245: 3197: 3147: 3032: 3022: 2937: 2804: 2694: 2468: 2382: 2374: 2336: 2261: 2188: 2050: 2011: 1884: 1854: 1827: 1782: 1699: 1502:(radio frequency processing) during the late 1970s. This technology was further developed by 1437: 1374: 1338:

technologies use heating elements or heating pipes placed within the oil shale formation. The

1323: 1319: 1244: 1071:(ATP) is that the entire process occurs in a single rotating multi–chamber horizontal vessel. 770: 559: 524: 146: 138: 78: 5905:

Oil Shale and Tar Sands Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) Information Center.

5640:. World Oil Conference. Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas – USA. Archived from 5602: 4469: 2253: 2178: 1777:

processing would be economic at sustained average world oil prices above $ 54 per barrel and

608:

the dissolved organic matter. Different methods produce shale oil with different properties.

7131: 6852: 6455: 6373: 6291: 6129: 6010: 5561: 5315: 5168: 5110: 5074: 5010: 4830: 4769: 4701: 4693: 4611: 4607: 4411: 3999: 3910: 3902: 3860: 3813: 3771: 3719: 3550: 3507: 3362: 3189: 3139: 3068: 2834: 2796: 2686: 2184: 2109: 1971: 1756: 1196: 1060: 814: 806: 512: 5544: 4993: 4384:"Schlumberger Acquires Raytheon Technology for Oil Extraction from Oil Shale and Oil Sands" 3327:

Oil Shale Development from the Perspective of NETL's Unconventional Oil Resource Repository

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500 °C (932 °F) and significant carbonate mineral decomposition and subsequent CO

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Industry analysts have created several classifications of the technologies used to extract

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Driving It Home. Choosing the Right Path for Fueling North America's Transportation Future

5495: 4896: 4815: 2501: 1733: 1698:

Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of

1507: 1343: 1096:

process uses a hydrogen–fired rotating kiln, where hot gas is circulated through an outer

1078: 1067:

balls instead of shale ash as the hot recycled solids. The distinguishing feature of the

1051: 794: 745: 462: 426: 422: 292: 291:. Its economic viability usually requires a lack of locally available crude oil. National 168: 96: 92: 5253:

Oil shale fluidized bed retorting technology with CFB furnace for burning the by-products

3798:

Al-Mayareh, Malik; Al-Salaymeh, Ahmed; Jovicic, Vojislav; Delgado, Antonio (2011-10-18).

3278:

Bartis, James T.; LaTourrette, Tom; Dixon, Lloyd; Peterson, D.J.; Cecchine, Gary (2005).

2459: 2411:

Francu, Juraj; Harvie, Barbra; Laenen, Ben; Siirde, Andres; Veiderma, Mihkel (May 2007).

1950:

Water concerns are sensitive issues in arid regions, such as the western US and Israel's

546:

kerogen decomposition reactions require a source of energy. Some technologies burn other

5311: 5152:"Kinetics of co-pyrolysis of Tarfaya (Morocco) oil shale with high-density polyethylene" 4689: 2287:

Runnels, Russell T.; Kulstad, Robert O.; McDuffee, Clinton; Schleicher, John A. (1952).

499:. Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled, causing the shale oil to 421:

have announced their intent to do the same. Only four processes are in commercial use:

382:

began extracting shale oil in the early 20th century. However, crude oil discoveries in

7201: 7121: 7111: 7101: 7042: 7017: 6726: 6667: 6598: 6485: 6470: 6279: 6217: 5962: 4706: 4671: 3763:

Messerle, V.E.; Ustimenko, A.B.; Dragosavljevich, Z.N.; Rakin, Petar (September 2009).

2418:(Report). European Academies Science Advisory Council. pp. 12–13, 18–19, 23–24, 28 1955: 1916: 1912: 1536: 1355: 1220: 1195:

Several experimental tests have been conducted for the oil-shale gasification by using

1164: 1131: 1105: 1055: 1023: 1015: 913: 885: 798: 757: 749: 653: 597: 596:

Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution (reactive fluid processes) extract the oil using

590: 493: 430: 251: 104: 58: 5151: 5093: 4410:

Daniel, David Edwin; Lowe, Donald F.; Oubre, Carroll L.; Ward, Calvin Herbert (1999).

4119:

Plan of Operation for Oil Shale Research, Development and Demonstration (R, D/D) Tract

7449: 7269: 7226: 7191: 6820: 6701: 6674: 6608: 6000: 5581: 5030: 4850: 4789: 3716:

Cold Flow Model Testing of the Hytort Process Retort Design. 17th Oil Shale Symposium

3574:

Biglarbigi, Khosrow; Mohan, Hitesh; Crawford, Peter; Carolus, Marshall (2008-12-04).

1858: 1677: 1629: 1548: 1425: 1413: 1212: 1043: 895: 881: 842: 753: 528: 496: 478: 470: 410: 212: 142: 5188: 5130: 4697: 3444:

Soone, Jüri; Riisalu, Hella; Kekisheva, Ljudmilla; Doilov, Svjatoslav (2006-11-07).

3209: 3159: 17: 7329: 7259: 7151: 7141: 7136: 7126: 7116: 7002: 6982: 6927: 6711: 6679: 6618: 6515: 6417: 6323: 6200: 6134: 5861: 5335: 1850: 1692: 1688: 1657: 1611: 1603: 1520: 1280: 1101: 846: 500: 484:

The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis (also known as

367: 269: 228: 82: 7221: 5399: 4754: 3886:"Application of EOR techniques for oil shale fields (in-situ combustion approach)" 3495:

A New Improved Process for Processing Oil Shale Ore into Motor Ready Fuel Products

5319: 4730:"Process for treating hot shale oil effluent from a retort – US Patent # 4181596" 4221: 2839: 1354:. The process was tested since the early 1980s at the Mahogany test site in the 1075:

disadvantage is that more water is used to handle the resulting finer shale ash.

7299: 7171: 6992: 6962: 6907: 6897: 6603: 6583: 6262: 6245: 6163: 6025: 5995: 5990: 5540: 4729: 4550: 4296: 4266: 3588: 3028: 2927: 2094: 1978:, have organized strong protests against the oil shale industry. In one result, 1928: 1903: 1711: 1617: 1499: 1347: 1039: 774: 547: 543: 387: 379: 363: 5078: 2153: 7349: 7216: 7206: 6972: 6810: 6716: 5208:

Ozdemir, M.; Akar, A.; Aydoğan, A.; Kalafatoglu, E.; Ekinci, E. (2006-11-07).

4871: 4150:

Oil Shale Research, Development & Demonstration Project. Plan of Operation

3961: 3936: 3737:

Weil, S. A.; Feldkirchner, H. L.; Punwani, D. V.; Janka, J. C. (21 May 1979).

3143: 1975: 1726: 1591: 1575: 1511: 1458: 1398: 1295:

method)—a process exploited between 1940 and 1966 for shale oil extraction at

1248: 1224: 823: 551: 313: 5573: 5180: 5122: 5094:"Co-liquefaction of kukersite oil shale and pine wood in supercritical water" 5022: 4842: 4781: 3618:. Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. 3447:

Environmentally sustainable use of energy and chemical potential of oil shale

3249: 3201: 3151: 2941: 2808: 2698: 34:. For production of crude oil trapped in oil-bearing shales (tight oil), see 7344: 7075: 7022: 6967: 6957: 6867: 6815: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6721: 6402: 6030: 5957: 5460: 4475: 4417: 4034: 3690: 3577:

Economics, Barriers, and Risks of Oil Shale Development in the United States

3193: 1932: 1880: 1653: 1560: 1394: 899: 645: 617: 582: 555: 466: 458: 359: 208: 204: 200: 150: 128: 118: 108: 35: 31: 5781: 5327: 5014: 4715: 3352: 1970:

processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water.

254:. Other modern technologies perform the processing underground (on-site or 5565: 5172: 5114: 4834: 4773: 4097: 3906: 3130:

Gorlov, E.G. (October 2007). "Thermal Dissolution Of Solid Fossil Fuels".

2800: 2690: 48: 7339: 7319: 7314: 7294: 7289: 7065: 7055: 6977: 6912: 6684: 6412: 6368: 6363: 6227: 4346: 3741:. National conference on energy and the environment, Pittsburgh, PA, US. 3627: 2045:. 27th Oil Shale Symposium. 27th Oil Shale Symposium 2007 – Proceedings. 1944: 1940: 1936: 1760: 1707: 1703: 1641: 1625: 1583: 1571: 1516: 1216: 1208: 1127: 877: 661: 434: 340: 261: 240: 232: 224: 220: 172: 100: 5747:"Critics charge energy, water needs of oil shale could harm environment" 4580:

Wauquier, Jean-Pierre; Trambouze, Pierre; Favennec, Jean-Pierre (1995).

2467:. Diane Publishing. June 1980. pp. 108–110, 133, 138–139, 148–150. 1361: 7007: 6997: 6877: 6872: 6787: 5264: 5260: 3915: 3848:

Oil shale processing, water treatment and CO2 sequestration with plasma

3742: 2986: 2982: 2606:(Report). Office of Deputy Assistant Secretary for Petroleum Reserves; 1899: 1888: 1807: 1799: 1791: 1673: 1633: 1540: 1440:

involving injection of super-heated air into the oil shale formation.

1383: 1254: 1239: 1148: 1064: 601: 532: 516: 508: 454: 414: 280: 279:

As of 2010, major long-standing extraction industries are operating in

256: 196: 4625: 3406:"Appendix A: Oil Shale Development Background and Technology Overview" 1891:, sulfur-gas emissions, and air pollution caused by the production of 1147:

Kerogen is tightly bound to the shale and resists dissolution by most

7324: 7211: 7196: 7186: 7146: 7060: 5915: 5222: 4583:

Petroleum Refining: Crude Oil. Petroleum Products. Process Flowsheets

3801:

Gasification of Jordanian oil shale using nitrogen non-thermal plasma

3623: 3531:

Coates, Ralph L.; Hatfield, Kent E.; Smoot, L. Douglas (2007-10-17).

3492:

Coates, Ralph L.; Hatfield, Kent E.; Smoot, L. Douglas (2007-10-16).

3467:: Jordanian Natural Resources Authority. pp. 2–3. Archived from 3464: 3338: 2780:"Editor's page. The 3rd International Oil Shale Symposium in Tallinn" 2747: 1819: 1803: 1681: 1649: 1645: 1621: 1587: 1579: 1567: 1379: 675: 520: 418: 375: 332: 320: 284: 236: 5387:"Oil Shale: The U.S. Takes Another Look at a Huge Domestic Resource" 4616: 1773: m). The United States Department of Energy estimates that the 664:, where it rises in the same way as conventional crude oil. Unlike 1883:

of formerly buried materials, the introduction of metals including

1750:, the capital costs of a 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m/d) 1574:

hydrocarbons. Shale oil can also contain significant quantities of

453:

Shale oil extraction process decomposes oil shale and converts its

7106: 7080: 7050: 7012: 6952: 6947: 6942: 5357: 5218: 4448:"Global Resource Reports Progress on Oil Shale Conversion Process" 3460: 3366: 2743: 1951: 1898: 1835: 1730: 1725: 1544: 1485: 1408: 1360: 1318: 1077: 542:

Heating the oil shale to pyrolysis temperature and completing the

444: 406: 383: 371: 312: 4259:

ExxonMobil's Electrofrac Process for In Situ Oil Shale Conversion

2969:

Alternative technologies for oil shale liquefaction and upgrading

1668:

can address these problems and result in a product comparable to

7334: 7274: 7027: 6505: 5910: 3739:

IGT HYTORT Process for hydrogen retorting of Devonian oil shales

3288: 2861:"San Leon Energy Awarded Moroccan Oil Shale Exploration Project" 2599:

Johnson, Harry R.; Crawford, Peter M.; Bunger, James W. (2004).

1795: 1637: 1330:

shale oil production separates the process from its surroundings

5919: 4027:

Lee, Sunggyu; Speight, James G.; Loyalka, Sudarshan K. (2007).

1818:, use oil shale that is a by-product of coal mining such as at 1303:

process were explored in the United States. The first modified

1199:

technologies. In these technologies, oil shale is bombarded by

7166: 7032: 6805: 5890: 3024:

Synthetic Fuels Handbook: Properties, Process, and Performance

2096:

Comparison of the acceptability of various oil shale processes

1204: 536: 288: 5515:

The Abandoned Mine Site Characterization and Cleanup Handbook

4755:"A brief overview of motor fuels from shale oil of kukersite" 1954:, where plans exist to expand oil-shale extraction despite a 1393:

extracts shale oil by exploiting a high-temperature stack of

1291:

processes was underground gasification by electrical energy (

656:

and then transported to a processing facility. In contrast,

3845:

Foret, Todd; Winterburg, Kip; MacClain, Cliff (2007-10-09).

1498:

developed the concept of oil shale volumetric heating using

1490:

Artist's rendition of a radio wave-based extraction facility

1386:

in the initial phase and by oil shale gas at a later stage.

250:

processing) by mining the oil shale and then treating it in

6795: 4124:(Report). E.G.L. Resources, Inc. 2006-02-15. Archived from 1307:

oil shale experiment in the United States was conducted by

1126:

retort vapors are not diluted with combustion exhaust. The

985:

processes do not involve mining or crushing the oil shale.

576:

increases along with retorting temperatures. For a modern

5052:

Proceedings. Symposium on Oil Shale 2002, Tallinn, Estonia

4340:"Radio Frequency/Critical Fluid Oil Extraction Technology" 3238:

American Chemical Society. Division of Petroleum Chemistry

2043:

Shale Products – Production, Quality and Market Challenges

4326:

Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings. 14th Oil Shale Symposium

1389:

The Geothermic Fuels Cells Process (IEP GFC) proposed by

5720:. September 2008. p. 4‑3. FES 08-32. Archived from 3173:

Koel, Mihkel; Ljovin, S.; Hollis, K.; Rubin, J. (2001).

2564:. 2007. pp. 3, 8, 16–17, 22–29, 36–37, 40–43, 54–57 1108:, which enhances its portability and adaptability. The 260:

processing) by applying heat and extracting the oil via

246:

Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground (

5911:

The United States National Oil Shale Association (NOSA)

5835:"Greenpeace happy with part closure of shale oil plant" 5225:: Jordanian Natural Resources Authority. Archived from 4816:"Estonian Oil Shale Retorting Industry at a Crossroads" 3231:"Reactivity of oil shale towards solvent hydrogenation" 3058:

Qian, Jialin; Wang, Jianqiu; Li, Shuyuan (2007-10-15).

2750:: Jordanian Natural Resources Authority. Archived from 1299:

in Sweden. Prior to the 1980s, many variations of the

1219:

are used as plasma gas and processes may operate in an

30:

This article is about production of synthetic oil from

3229:

Baldwin, R. M.; Bennett, D. P.; Briley, R. A. (1984).

1718:

can create the lighter hydrocarbons used in gasoline.

1179:

and an associated hydrogen-fired heater for oil shale

943:

Radio wave, microwave, and electric current processes

3061:

One Year's Progress in the Chinese Oil Shale Business

1578:. A typical shale oil composition includes 0.5–1% of 7396:

International Association of Oil & Gas Producers

3591:: The United States Association for Energy Economics 3419:. September 2008. pp. 36, 54–55. Archived from 3103:

The Engineering Societies Commission on Energy, Inc.

2375:"Survey of oil-shale research in last three decades" 2152:: 35, 38, 56–57. DE-ACO2 – 82ER60036. Archived from 2093:

Burnham, Alan K.; McConaghy, James R. (2006-10-16).

1648:

form insoluble sediments and cause instability. The

7373: 7239: 7089: 7041: 6829: 6786: 6771: 6762: 6647: 6564: 6446: 6332: 6226: 6154: 6097: 6056: 6049: 5971: 5749:. U.S. Water News Online. July 2007. Archived from 3616:

Advances in World Oil-Shale Production Technologies

2670:"Oil shale – a local asset under global constraint" 160: 134: 124: 114: 88: 74: 66: 5422: 5398: 5211:Copyrolysis of Goynuk oil shale and thermoplastics 4197: 3400: 3398: 3396: 2137:Louw, S.J.; Addison, J. (1985). Seaton, A. (ed.). 4902:(Report). Congressional Research Service. RL34748 4877:(Report). Congressional Research Service. RL33359 4450:(Press release). Global Resource Corp. 2007-03-09 2327:. In Clarke, Alan W.; Trinnaman, Judy A. (eds.). 2217:The History of On-Shore Hydrocarbon Use in the UK 1652:within the oil, present at higher levels than in 335:with the implementation of a process invented by 5863:Greenpeace vs the future of Australian oil shale 3096:"Synthetic Fuels Summary. Report No. FE-2468-82" 2608:Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves 2562:Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves 2594: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2578: 1656:, lends itself to the formation of destructive 5707:"Chapter 4. Effects of Oil Shale Technologies" 4471:Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design 3884:Kök, M. V.; Guner, G.; Suat Bağci, A. (2008). 3175:"Using neoteric solvents in oil shale studies" 2454: 2452: 2377:. In Teh Fu Yen; Chilingar, George V. (eds.). 2256:. In Teh Fu Yen; Chilingar, George V. (eds.). 1887:into surface-water and groundwater, increased 1874:Environmental impact of the oil shale industry 973:technologies are usually classified either as 5931: 5519:United States Environmental Protection Agency 5487:Western Oil Shale Has a High Mercury Content 4647:United States Environmental Protection Agency 3090: 3088: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2444: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2432: 1736:prices 1996–2009 (not adjusted for inflation) 1014:Internal combustion technologies such as the 8: 5250:Siirde, Andres; Martins, Ants (2009-06-07). 5092:Veski, R.; Palu, V.; Kruusement, K. (2006). 4948: 4946: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4271:American Association of Petroleum Geologists 3714:Rex, R.; Janka, J. C.; Knowlton, T. (1984). 3325:Smith, M.W.; Shadle, L.J.; Hill, D. (2007). 3016: 3014: 3012: 3010: 1939:, and various alkyl homologues of pyridine ( 1519:together with CF Technologies and tested by 1171:) process, donor solvent processes, and the 327:In the 10th century, the Assyrian physician 41: 5067:Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 4610:(Report). Energy Citations Database. 1979. 4022: 4020: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3105:: 80, 83–84, 90. March 1981. Archived from 2614:. pp. 13–16, A2, B3–B5. Archived from 1531:. Electro-Petroleum proposes electrically 6783: 6768: 6053: 5938: 5924: 5916: 5701: 5699: 5424:"Nuclear heat advances oil shale refining 4642:Compendium reports on oil shale technology 4290: 4288: 4286: 3793: 3791: 1620:in the raw oil clog downstream processes; 47: 40: 5891:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 5553:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 5160:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 5102:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 5002:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 4872:Oil Shale: History, Incentives and Policy 4823:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 4762:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 4705: 4639:Slawson, G. C.; Teh Fu Yen, eds. (1979). 4615: 4030:Handbook of Alternative Fuel Technologies 3984: 3982: 3914: 3894:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 3758: 3756: 2933:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 2838:. Jordan Press Foundation. Archived from 2788:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 2773: 2771: 2678:Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal 2381:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 237–243. 612:Classification of extraction technologies 339:in 1838, improved upon a decade later in 27:Process for extracting oil from oil shale 4251: 4249: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3314: 2727:Qian Jialin; Wang Jianqiu (2006-11-07). 2088: 2086: 1842:processing is typically 4 to 5 while of 704: 6858:China National Offshore Oil Corporation 4505: 4503: 4501: 4066:"Oil shale may finally have its moment" 3678: 3676: 3387:United States National Research Council 3273: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3265: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2830:"Jordan set to tap oil shale potential" 2722: 2720: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2461:An Assessment of Oil Shale Technologies 2254:"The origin and formation of oil shale" 2084: 2082: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2028: 1846:processing it may be even as low as 2. 644:processing, also known as above-ground 6732:Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir 6491:2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war 5677:"Oil-shale 'rush' is sparking concern" 5259:. International Oil Shale Symphosium. 5217:. International Oil Shale Conference. 4954:"Fact Sheet: U.S. Oil Shale Economics" 4748: 4746: 4677:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 4378: 4376: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4304:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 4226:. Plunkett Research, Ltd. p. 71. 3453:. International Oil Shale Conference. 2736:. International Oil Shale Conference. 2730:World oil shale retorting technologies 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2497: 2487: 2368: 2366: 2105:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 1640:that may be present, also destroy the 1632:. Sulfur and nitrogen, along with the 1504:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 219:. The resultant shale oil is used as 5869:. The 53rd Sydney Mining Club. Sydney 4926:. Jones & Bartlett. p. 297. 4923:Principles of Environmental Chemistry 2975:. International Oil Shale Symposium. 2406: 2404: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 7: 6863:China National Petroleum Corporation 5634:Unconventional Liquid Fuels Overview 481:performed on a sample of the shale. 5839:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 5675:Speckman, Stephen (22 March 2008). 5508:"Environmental Impacts from Mining" 2260:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 56. 1506:. Oil shale is heated by vertical 231:feedstock specifications by adding 195:production. This process converts 6923:National Iranian South Oil Company 6639:Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin 3989:Savage, Marshall T. (2006-10-17). 3538:emissions from oil shale retorting 3331:United States Department of Energy 2612:United States Department of Energy 2558:United States Department of Energy 2150:Institute of Occupational Medicine 2112:. pp. 2, 17. UCRL-CONF-226717 1748:United States Department of Energy 1187:and high-pressure retort vessels. 593:emissions and energy consumption. 89:Main technologies or sub-processes 25: 7391:Intercontinental Exchange Futures 7280:Chicago Bridge & Iron Company 6933:Oil & Gas Development Company 5860:Anderson, Campbell (2 May 2002). 5805:"Hopes for shale oil are revived" 5803:Fischer, Perry A. (August 2005). 5610:Natural Resources Defense Council 4586:. Editions TECHNIP. p. 317. 2293:Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin 1906:often presents a disposal problem 1428:process, which was researched by 1173:Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor 925:Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor 465:oil. The process is conducted by 309:History of the oil shale industry 7428: 7427: 5521:. August 2000. pp. 3/1–3/11 5468:Government Accountability Office 5269:Tallinn University of Technology 3456:Tallinn University of Technology 2978:Tallinn University of Technology 1974:activists, including members of 1600:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1496:Illinois Institute of Technology 1340:Shell in situ conversion process 648:, the oil shale is mined either 449:Overview of shale oil extraction 6938:Oil and Natural Gas Corporation 5631:Bartis, Jim (26 October 2006). 4895:Andrews, Anthony (2008-11-17). 4870:Andrews, Anthony (2006-04-13). 4698:10.1128/AEM.72.3.2235-2238.2006 4608:Market assessment for shale oil 4295:Burnham, Alan K. (2003-08-20). 3937:"REVOLUTION IN SHALE TREATMENT" 1369:In the CCR Process proposed by 1082:Alberta Taciuk Processor retort 589:in the rock and thereby limits 7406:Society of Petroleum Engineers 7177:Port Harcourt Refining Company 6843:Abu Dhabi National Oil Company 5459:Mittal, Anu K. (10 May 2012). 5437:. Vol. 106, no. 30. 3724:Colorado School of Mines Press 3655:. Hubbert Peak. Archived from 3632:Society of Petroleum Engineers 1986:in Australia on hold in 2004. 1960:environmental impact statement 1434:Los Alamos National Laboratory 1365:American Shale Oil CCR Process 1262:techniques could not extract. 1207:). The radicals crack kerogen 950:By raw oil shale particle size 392:Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program 1: 6352:Production sharing agreements 5391:Chemical Engineering Progress 4096:Reiss, Spencer (2005-12-13). 3073:China University of Petroleum 2739:China University of Petroleum 1515:fluids is being developed by 1420:Externally generated hot gas 874:Externally generated hot gas 7386:Canadian petroleum companies 7381:American Petroleum Institute 6918:National Iranian Oil Company 6903:Kuwait Petroleum Corporation 5778:Al-Balqa` Applied University 5320:10.1126/science.225.4665.890 4965:Office of Petroleum Reserves 3998:. 26th Oil Shale Symposium. 3854:. 27th Oil Shale Symposium. 3807:. 31st Oil Shale Symposium. 3544:. 27th Oil Shale Symposium. 3501:. 27th Oil Shale Symposium. 3067:. 27th Oil Shale Symposium. 2867:. 2009-06-01. Archived from 2646:. 2005-09-20. Archived from 2225:Geological Society of London 2102:. 26th Oil shale symposium. 1868:Environmental considerations 1405:Externally generated hot gas 1342:(Shell ICP) uses electrical 1121:Externally generated hot gas 563:pre-heat the raw oil shale. 386:during the 1920s and in the 343:using a process invented by 270:reserves of conventional oil 7401:International Energy Agency 6386:Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 4265:. AAAPG Annual Convention. 3962:"TRAGEDY OF SHALE INDUSTRY" 2828:Luck, Taylor (2008-08-07). 2227:. p. 1. Archived from 1980:Queensland Energy Resources 1529:Global Resource Corporation 1391:Independent Energy Partners 967:By complexity of technology 920:), donor solvent processes 7482: 6988:PTT Public Company Limited 6589:East Midlands Oil Province 6574:List of natural gas fields 6174:Integrated asset modelling 5774:"Jordan Oil Shale Project" 5421:Clark, Judy (2008-08-11). 5385:Parkinson, Gerald (2006). 5079:10.1016/j.jaap.2005.06.001 4220:Plunkett, Jack W. (2008). 4184:Doyle, Dave (March 2008). 4159:2006-02-15. Archived from 4064:Birger, Jon (2007-11-01). 3857:Combustion Resources, Inc. 3810:Combustion Resources, Inc. 3650:"Review on oil shale data" 3547:Combustion Resources, Inc. 3504:Combustion Resources, Inc. 3182:Pure and Applied Chemistry 3021:Speight, James G. (2008). 2373:Prien, Charles H. (1976). 2329:Survey of energy resources 2146:Historical Research Report 1925:carbon capture and storage 1871: 1739: 1558: 1451: 1215:and oil. Air, hydrogen or 942: 939: 936: 928: 912: 909: 894: 876: 873: 858: 837: 832: 827: 789: 784: 765: 736: 733: 306: 29: 7423: 7360:Weatherford International 6893:Iraq National Oil Company 5953: 5718:Bureau of Land Management 5354:World Energy Outlook 2010 4897:Developments in Oil Shale 4468:McKetta, John J. (1994). 3417:Bureau of Land Management 3354:Fuels to drive our future 3291:. pp. x, 15–18, 50. 3144:10.3103/S0361521907050047 3031:. pp. 13, 182, 186. 2966:Luik, Hans (2009-06-08). 2644:Bureau of Land Management 2477:. NTIS order #PB80-210115 1964:Bureau of Land Management 1923:conversion processes and 1087:Conduction through a wall 1030:to fuse or disintegrate. 892:, Syntec (Smith process) 833:Conduction through a wall 709: 400:Energy Policy Act of 2005 61:, Colorado, United States 46: 4551:McGraw-Hill Professional 4546:Synthetic Fuels Handbook 4516:. CRC Press. p. 7. 4098:"Tapping the Rock Field" 4004:Colorado School of Mines 3865:Colorado School of Mines 3818:Colorado School of Mines 3747:Gas Technology Institute 3555:Colorado School of Mines 3512:Colorado School of Mines 3359:National Academies Press 2897:Colorado School of Mines 2047:Colorado School of Mines 1984:Stuart Oil Shale Project 868:IEP Geothermic Fuel Cell 787:(inert or burned shale) 767:Occidental Petroleum MIS 490:destructive distillation 355:from the coal industry. 297:environmental management 7411:World Petroleum Council 7285:China Oilfield Services 6342:Petroleum fiscal regime 6041:Western Canadian Select 6036:West Texas Intermediate 4992:Schmidt, S. J. (2003). 4732:. freepatentsonline.com 4543:Speight, James (2008). 4328:: 138–145. CONF-810456. 4194:Gulf Publishing Company 3968:. 1937-02-06. p. 4 3534:A method of reducing CO 3341:. DOE/NETL-IR-2007-022. 3194:10.1351/pac200173010153 2556:(Report) (5 ed.). 1543:in producing wells and 1471:calcined petroleum coke 6888:Indian Oil Corporation 6374:Submersible pump (ESP) 6319:Underbalanced drilling 6140:of gasoline and diesel 5772:Al-Ayed, Omar (2008). 5545:"Opening a new decade" 5015:10.3176/oil.2003.3S.06 4920:Girard, James (2004). 4814:Mölder, Leevi (2004). 2778:Aarna, Indrek (2009). 2320:Dyni, John R. (2010). 2041:Purga, Jaanus (2007). 1907: 1737: 1680:) or removing carbon ( 1491: 1467:ExxonMobil Electrofrac 1454:ExxonMobil Electrofrac 1448:ExxonMobil Electrofrac 1417: 1366: 1331: 1083: 1069:Alberta Taciuk Process 1009:traveling-grate retort 864:American Shale Oil CCR 775:Geokinetics Horizontal 450: 324: 177:Stuart Shale Oil Plant 165:Fushun Shale Oil Plant 7265:Cameron International 6707:Petrodollar recycling 6690:fossil fuel phase-out 6253:Differential sticking 6206:Reflection seismology 6179:Petroleum engineering 6021:OPEC Reference Basket 5566:10.3176/oil.2004.1.01 5434:Oil & Gas Journal 5173:10.3176/oil.2007.1.04 5115:10.3176/oil.2006.3.04 4835:10.3176/oil.2004.2.01 4774:10.3176/oil.2006.2.08 4510:Lee, Sunggyu (1991). 3992:Geothermic fuel cells 3907:10.3176/oil.2008.2.04 3693:. pp. 109, 110. 3361:. 1990. p. 183. 2926:Koel, Mihkel (1999). 2801:10.3176/oil.2009.3.01 2691:10.3176/oil.2009.3.02 2289:"Oil Shale in Kansas" 2177:Forbes, R.J. (1970). 1902: 1734:light-sweet crude oil 1729: 1533:enhanced oil recovery 1489: 1412: 1364: 1352:groundwater pollution 1322: 1177:fluidized bed reactor 1081: 961:By retort orientation 624:By process principles 448: 441:Processing principles 316: 252:processing facilities 53:Shell's experimental 7461:Petroleum production 7456:Oil shale technology 7162:Occidental Petroleum 6476:1990 oil price shock 6302:Shale oil extraction 6275:Drilling engineering 6258:Directional drilling 6184:Reservoir simulation 5682:Deseret Morning News 5439:PennWell Corporation 5364:. pp. 165–169. 4513:Oil Shale Technology 4457:– via Rigzone. 3686:Oil shale technology 3683:Sunggyu Lee (1990). 3289:The RAND Corporation 3132:Solid Fuel Chemistry 2928:"Estonian oil shale" 2668:Brendow, K. (2009). 2333:World Energy Council 2002:Oil shale in Estonia 1666:hydrodenitrogenation 1662:Hydrodesulfurization 1442:Mountain West Energy 1432:in partnership with 1309:Occidental Petroleum 1094:Combustion Resources 855:Combustion Resources 734:Internal combustion 185:Shale oil extraction 75:Industrial sector(s) 57:shale oil facility, 42:Shale oil extraction 18:Oil shale extraction 7310:Naftiran Intertrade 7255:Amec Foster Wheeler 7182:Reliance Industries 7071:Naftiran Intertrade 6883:Hindustan Petroleum 6481:2000s energy crisis 5397:(7). Archived from 5312:1984Sci...225..890C 4753:Oja, Vahur (2006). 4690:2006ApEnM..72.2235Y 2335:. pp. 93–123. 2252:Cane, R.F. (1976). 2007:Oil shale in Jordan 1824:specialty chemicals 1742:Oil shale economics 1670:benchmark crude oil 1598:Shale oil contains 1475:hydraulic fractures 1430:Chevron Corporation 1326:'s freeze wall for 1191:Plasma gasification 1185:hydrogen production 1034:Hot recycled solids 1020:thermally efficient 1002:Internal combustion 937:Volumetric heating 932:(some embodiments) 851:EcoShale In-Capsule 785:Hot recycled solids 505:inorganic compounds 475:thermal dissolution 329:Masawaih al-Mardini 318:Alexander C. Kirk's 217:thermal dissolution 155:Fushun Mining Group 43: 7157:Marathon Petroleum 6579:List of oil fields 6189:Reservoir modeling 5947:Petroleum industry 5815:on 9 November 2006 5809:World Oil Magazine 5494:2011-07-19 at the 4389:Green Car Congress 4190:World Oil Magazine 3646:Laherrère, Jean H. 3620:INTEK Incorporated 3585:INTEK Incorporated 2187:. pp. 41–42. 2017:Oil shale reserves 1997:Oil shale in China 1908: 1816:economies of scale 1738: 1700:middle distillates 1644:used in refining. 1535:by the passage of 1492: 1482:Volumetric heating 1418: 1371:American Shale Oil 1367: 1332: 1268:experimented with 1260:traditional mining 1245:thermal conduction 1110:Red Leaf Resources 1084: 862:(primary method), 678:are classified as 525:aromatic compounds 451: 396:Unocal Corporation 353:oil shale industry 349:Pumpherston retort 337:Alexander Selligue 325: 193:unconventional oil 189:industrial process 7441: 7440: 7419: 7418: 7305:Nabors Industries 7235: 7234: 6433:Well intervention 6408:Petroleum product 6307:Ljungström method 6211:Seismic inversion 6196:Petroleum geology 6150: 6149: 5371:978-92-64-08624-1 5306:(4665): 890–897. 4933:978-0-7637-2471-9 4656:978-2-7108-0685-1 4593:978-2-7108-0685-1 4560:978-0-07-149023-8 4523:978-0-8493-4615-6 4485:978-0-8247-2601-0 4427:978-1-56670-464-9 4233:978-1-59392-128-6 4157:Chevron USA, Inc. 4044:978-0-8247-4069-6 3726:. pp. 17–36. 3700:978-0-8493-4615-6 3376:978-0-309-08645-5 3298:978-0-8330-3848-7 3038:978-0-07-149023-8 2642:(Press release). 2474:978-1-4289-2463-5 2388:978-0-444-41408-3 2342:978-0-946121-02-1 2267:978-0-444-41408-3 2194:978-90-04-00617-1 2056:978-1-63439-147-4 2012:Oil shale geology 1982:put the proposed 1962:issued by the US 1855:coal gasification 1828:Viru Keemia Grupp 1783:Royal Dutch Shell 1438:Omnishale process 1375:superheated steam 947: 946: 890:Superior Indirect 672:By heating method 457:into shale oil—a 182: 181: 147:Viru Keemia Grupp 139:Royal Dutch Shell 135:Leading companies 79:Chemical industry 16:(Redirected from 7473: 7431: 7430: 7132:Hess Corporation 6853:Bharat Petroleum 6784: 6769: 6456:1967 Oil Embargo 6292:Lost circulation 6130:Posted oil price 6054: 6011:Isthmus-34 Light 5940: 5933: 5926: 5917: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5874: 5868: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5848: 5846: 5831: 5825: 5824: 5822: 5820: 5811:. Archived from 5800: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5789: 5780:. Archived from 5769: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5743: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5726: 5711: 5703: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5689: 5672: 5666: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5652: 5646: 5639: 5628: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5607: 5599: 5593: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5549: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5512: 5504: 5498: 5485: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5465: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5446: 5441:. pp. 22–24 5430: 5418: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5408: 5402: 5382: 5376: 5375: 5346: 5340: 5339: 5293: 5287: 5286: 5284: 5283: 5277: 5271:. Archived from 5258: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5237: 5231: 5216: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5196: 5195: 5156: 5147: 5141: 5140: 5138: 5137: 5098: 5089: 5083: 5082: 5062: 5056: 5055: 5047: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5037: 4998: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4979: 4973: 4967:. Archived from 4958: 4950: 4941: 4940: 4917: 4911: 4910: 4908: 4907: 4901: 4892: 4886: 4885: 4883: 4882: 4876: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4857: 4820: 4811: 4800: 4799: 4797: 4796: 4759: 4750: 4741: 4740: 4738: 4737: 4726: 4720: 4719: 4709: 4684:(3): 2235–2238. 4667: 4661: 4660: 4636: 4630: 4629: 4619: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4567: 4540: 4534: 4533: 4531: 4530: 4507: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4492: 4474:. Vol. 50. 4465: 4459: 4458: 4456: 4455: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4435: 4434: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4397: 4380: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4361: 4355: 4349:. Archived from 4344: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4321: 4315: 4314: 4312: 4311: 4306:. UCRL-ID-155045 4301: 4292: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4277: 4264: 4253: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4240: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4208: 4207: 4201: 4196:. Archived from 4181: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4171: 4165: 4154: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4136: 4130: 4123: 4115: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4105: 4100:. WIRED magazine 4093: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4083: 4074:. Archived from 4061: 4055: 4054: 4052: 4051: 4024: 4015: 4014: 4012: 4011: 4000:Golden, Colorado 3997: 3986: 3977: 3976: 3974: 3973: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3949: 3948: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3923: 3918: 3890: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3872: 3871: 3861:Golden, Colorado 3853: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3833: 3832: 3826: 3820:. Archived from 3814:Golden, Colorado 3806: 3795: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3782: 3776: 3769: 3760: 3751: 3750: 3749:. CONF-790571-3. 3734: 3728: 3727: 3720:Golden, Colorado 3711: 3705: 3704: 3680: 3671: 3670: 3668: 3667: 3661: 3654: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3611: 3600: 3599: 3597: 3596: 3582: 3571: 3565: 3564: 3562: 3561: 3551:Golden, Colorado 3543: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3519: 3518: 3508:Golden, Colorado 3500: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3480: 3479: 3473: 3452: 3441: 3435: 3434: 3432: 3431: 3425: 3410: 3402: 3391: 3390: 3384: 3383: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3322: 3309: 3308: 3306: 3305: 3286: 3275: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3256: 3235: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3217: 3216: 3179: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3117: 3111: 3100: 3092: 3083: 3082: 3080: 3079: 3069:Golden, Colorado 3066: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3046: 3045: 3018: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3001: 2995: 2989:. Archived from 2974: 2963: 2952: 2951: 2949: 2948: 2923: 2908: 2907: 2905: 2904: 2894: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2876: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2848: 2847: 2835:The Jordan Times 2825: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2815: 2784: 2775: 2766: 2765: 2763: 2762: 2756: 2735: 2724: 2709: 2708: 2706: 2705: 2674: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2656: 2655: 2636: 2630: 2629: 2627: 2626: 2620: 2605: 2596: 2573: 2572: 2570: 2569: 2551: 2543: 2506: 2505: 2499: 2495: 2493: 2485: 2483: 2482: 2466: 2456: 2427: 2426: 2424: 2423: 2417: 2408: 2399: 2398: 2396: 2395: 2370: 2361: 2360: 2358: 2357: 2351: 2345:. Archived from 2326: 2317: 2304: 2303: 2301: 2300: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2275: 2274: 2249: 2243: 2242: 2240: 2239: 2233: 2222: 2211: 2205: 2204: 2202: 2201: 2185:Brill Publishers 2174: 2168: 2167: 2165: 2164: 2158: 2143: 2134: 2121: 2120: 2118: 2117: 2110:Golden, Colorado 2101: 2090: 2061: 2060: 2038: 1769: 1768: 1757:RAND Corporation 1508:electrode arrays 1344:heating elements 1334:Wall conduction 1181:thermal cracking 1167:(high-pressure H 1061:TOSCO II process 987:Modified in situ 979:modified in situ 916:(high-pressure H 910:Reactive fluids 835:(various fuels) 705: 640:(in place). In 620:from oil shale. 274:petroleum prices 51: 44: 21: 7481: 7480: 7476: 7475: 7474: 7472: 7471: 7470: 7466:Arab inventions 7446: 7445: 7442: 7437: 7415: 7369: 7365:John Wood Group 7355:Valaris Limited 7248: 7245: 7242: 7231: 7097:APA Corporation 7085: 7037: 6836: 6833: 6825: 6780: 6777: 6774: 6764: 6758: 6659:Classification 6643: 6566: 6560: 6496:Nationalization 6466:1979 oil crisis 6461:1973 oil crisis 6442: 6428:Water injection 6396:Steam injection 6391:Gas reinjection 6359:Artificial lift 6328: 6270:Drill stem test 6222: 6146: 6093: 6045: 5967: 5949: 5944: 5887: 5882: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5859: 5858: 5854: 5844: 5842: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5818: 5816: 5802: 5801: 5797: 5787: 5785: 5771: 5770: 5766: 5756: 5754: 5753:on 18 June 2008 5745: 5744: 5740: 5730: 5728: 5724: 5709: 5705: 5704: 5697: 5687: 5685: 5674: 5673: 5669: 5664: 5660: 5650: 5648: 5647:on 21 July 2011 5644: 5637: 5630: 5629: 5625: 5615: 5613: 5605: 5601: 5600: 5596: 5586: 5584: 5547: 5539: 5538: 5534: 5524: 5522: 5510: 5506: 5505: 5501: 5496:Wayback Machine 5486: 5482: 5472: 5470: 5463: 5458: 5457: 5453: 5444: 5442: 5420: 5419: 5415: 5406: 5404: 5384: 5383: 5379: 5372: 5348: 5347: 5343: 5295: 5294: 5290: 5281: 5279: 5275: 5256: 5249: 5248: 5244: 5235: 5233: 5229: 5214: 5207: 5206: 5202: 5193: 5191: 5154: 5149: 5148: 5144: 5135: 5133: 5096: 5091: 5090: 5086: 5064: 5063: 5059: 5049: 5048: 5044: 5035: 5033: 4996: 4991: 4990: 4986: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4944: 4934: 4919: 4918: 4914: 4905: 4903: 4899: 4894: 4893: 4889: 4880: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4868: 4864: 4855: 4853: 4818: 4813: 4812: 4803: 4794: 4792: 4757: 4752: 4751: 4744: 4735: 4733: 4728: 4727: 4723: 4669: 4668: 4664: 4657: 4645:. Vol. 1. 4638: 4637: 4633: 4617:10.2172/5749060 4606: 4605: 4601: 4594: 4579: 4578: 4574: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4553:. p. 188. 4542: 4541: 4537: 4528: 4526: 4524: 4509: 4508: 4499: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4467: 4466: 4462: 4453: 4451: 4446: 4445: 4441: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4409: 4408: 4404: 4395: 4393: 4382: 4381: 4368: 4359: 4357: 4353: 4342: 4338: 4337: 4333: 4323: 4322: 4318: 4309: 4307: 4299: 4294: 4293: 4284: 4275: 4273: 4262: 4255: 4254: 4247: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4205: 4203: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4169: 4167: 4163: 4152: 4148: 4147: 4143: 4134: 4132: 4128: 4121: 4117: 4116: 4112: 4103: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4081: 4079: 4063: 4062: 4058: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4037:. p. 290. 4026: 4025: 4018: 4009: 4007: 3995: 3988: 3987: 3980: 3971: 3969: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3946: 3944: 3941:Lithgow Mercury 3935: 3934: 3930: 3921: 3919: 3888: 3883: 3882: 3878: 3869: 3867: 3851: 3844: 3843: 3839: 3830: 3828: 3824: 3804: 3797: 3796: 3789: 3780: 3778: 3774: 3767: 3762: 3761: 3754: 3736: 3735: 3731: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3682: 3681: 3674: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3652: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3613: 3612: 3603: 3594: 3592: 3580: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3559: 3557: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3529: 3525: 3516: 3514: 3498: 3491: 3490: 3486: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3450: 3443: 3442: 3438: 3429: 3427: 3423: 3408: 3404: 3403: 3394: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3351: 3350: 3346: 3324: 3323: 3312: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3284: 3277: 3276: 3263: 3254: 3252: 3233: 3228: 3227: 3223: 3214: 3212: 3177: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3098: 3094: 3093: 3086: 3077: 3075: 3064: 3057: 3056: 3052: 3043: 3041: 3039: 3020: 3019: 3008: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2972: 2965: 2964: 2955: 2946: 2944: 2925: 2924: 2911: 2902: 2900: 2892: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2874: 2872: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2845: 2843: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2813: 2811: 2782: 2777: 2776: 2769: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2733: 2726: 2725: 2712: 2703: 2701: 2672: 2667: 2666: 2662: 2653: 2651: 2638: 2637: 2633: 2624: 2622: 2618: 2603: 2598: 2597: 2576: 2567: 2565: 2549: 2545: 2544: 2509: 2496: 2486: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2464: 2458: 2457: 2430: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2410: 2409: 2402: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2372: 2371: 2364: 2355: 2353: 2349: 2343: 2331:(22 ed.). 2324: 2319: 2318: 2307: 2298: 2296: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2272: 2270: 2268: 2251: 2250: 2246: 2237: 2235: 2231: 2220: 2213: 2212: 2208: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2176: 2175: 2171: 2162: 2160: 2156: 2141: 2136: 2135: 2124: 2115: 2113: 2099: 2092: 2091: 2064: 2057: 2049:. p. 331. 2040: 2039: 2030: 2026: 2021: 1992: 1876: 1870: 1822:China, produce 1766: 1764: 1761:upgrading plant 1744: 1724: 1586:and 0.15–1% of 1563: 1557: 1484: 1456: 1450: 1407: 1317: 1315:Wall conduction 1272:extraction, at 1236: 1193: 1170: 1158: 1145: 1143:Reactive fluids 1138: 1132:Paraho Indirect 1123: 1089: 1036: 1004: 999: 922:Rendall Process 919: 886:Paraho Indirect 834: 818: 786: 762:Superior Direct 689:By heat carrier 636:(displaced) or 614: 598:hydrogen donors 463:synthetic crude 443: 311: 305: 293:energy security 169:Narva Oil Plant 161:Main facilities 62: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7479: 7477: 7469: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7448: 7447: 7439: 7438: 7436: 7435: 7424: 7421: 7420: 7417: 7416: 7414: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7377: 7375: 7371: 7370: 7368: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7251: 7249: 7240: 7237: 7236: 7233: 7232: 7230: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7202:Surgutneftegas 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7122:Eneos Holdings 7119: 7114: 7112:ConocoPhillips 7109: 7104: 7102:Cenovus Energy 7099: 7093: 7091: 7087: 7086: 7084: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7047: 7045: 7043:Energy trading 7039: 7038: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6839: 6837: 6830: 6827: 6826: 6824: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6792: 6790: 6781: 6772: 6766: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6756: 6755: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6729: 6727:Swing producer 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6692: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6671: 6670: 6665: 6657: 6651: 6649: 6645: 6644: 6642: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6599:Gulf of Mexico 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6570: 6568: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6486:2010s oil glut 6483: 6478: 6473: 6471:1980s oil glut 6468: 6463: 6458: 6452: 6450: 6444: 6443: 6441: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6399: 6398: 6393: 6383: 6378: 6377: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6349: 6338: 6336: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6310: 6309: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6288: 6287: 6280:Drilling fluid 6277: 6272: 6267: 6266: 6265: 6255: 6250: 6249: 6248: 6238: 6232: 6230: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6220: 6218:Seismic source 6215: 6214: 6213: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6192: 6191: 6186: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6160: 6158: 6152: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6101: 6099: 6095: 6094: 6092: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6060: 6058: 6051: 6047: 6046: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6016:Japan Cocktail 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5977: 5975: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5965: 5963:Primary energy 5960: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5935: 5928: 5920: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5902: 5886: 5885:External links 5883: 5881: 5880: 5852: 5841:. 22 July 2004 5826: 5795: 5784:on 3 June 2008 5764: 5738: 5727:on 27 May 2010 5695: 5667: 5658: 5623: 5594: 5532: 5499: 5480: 5451: 5413: 5377: 5370: 5341: 5288: 5242: 5200: 5142: 5109:(3): 236–248. 5084: 5073:(2): 205–210. 5057: 5042: 5009:(3): 333–346. 4984: 4942: 4932: 4912: 4887: 4862: 4801: 4768:(2): 160–163. 4742: 4721: 4662: 4655: 4631: 4599: 4592: 4572: 4559: 4535: 4522: 4497: 4484: 4478:. p. 49. 4460: 4439: 4426: 4402: 4366: 4331: 4316: 4282: 4245: 4232: 4212: 4176: 4141: 4110: 4088: 4056: 4043: 4016: 3978: 3953: 3928: 3901:(2): 217–225. 3876: 3837: 3787: 3752: 3729: 3706: 3699: 3672: 3637: 3601: 3566: 3535: 3523: 3484: 3436: 3392: 3375: 3344: 3310: 3297: 3261: 3244:(1): 148–153. 3221: 3188:(1): 153–159. 3165: 3138:(5): 290–298. 3122: 3084: 3050: 3037: 3006: 2953: 2909: 2881: 2852: 2820: 2795:(3): 349–356. 2767: 2710: 2685:(3): 357–372. 2660: 2631: 2574: 2507: 2473: 2428: 2400: 2387: 2362: 2341: 2305: 2279: 2266: 2244: 2206: 2193: 2169: 2122: 2062: 2055: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1956:water shortage 1917:greenhouse gas 1913:carbon dioxide 1872:Main article: 1869: 1866: 1740:Main article: 1723: 1720: 1559:Main article: 1556: 1553: 1537:direct current 1483: 1480: 1452:Main article: 1449: 1446: 1406: 1403: 1356:Piceance Basin 1316: 1313: 1235: 1229: 1192: 1189: 1168: 1156: 1144: 1141: 1136: 1122: 1119: 1106:modular design 1088: 1085: 1035: 1032: 1024:Fushun process 1003: 1000: 998: 992: 952:: The various 945: 944: 941: 938: 934: 933: 927: 917: 911: 907: 906: 893: 875: 871: 870: 857: 836: 830: 829: 826: 791:Alberta Taciuk 788: 782: 781: 764: 738:Gas combustion 735: 731: 730: 723: 718:Above ground ( 716: 715:Heating Method 712: 711: 708: 654:at the surface 613: 610: 591:carbon dioxide 442: 439: 307:Main article: 304: 301: 180: 179: 162: 158: 157: 136: 132: 131: 126: 122: 121: 116: 112: 111: 90: 86: 85: 76: 72: 71: 68: 64: 63: 59:Piceance Basin 52: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7478: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7444: 7434: 7426: 7425: 7422: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7372: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7238: 7228: 7227:Valero Energy 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7192:Suncor Energy 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7088: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6828: 6822: 6821:TotalEnergies 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6791: 6789: 6785: 6782: 6779: 6770: 6767: 6765:organisations 6763:Companies and 6761: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6734: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6702:Petrocurrency 6700: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6675:Oil shale gas 6673: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6660: 6658: 6656: 6655:Abbreviations 6653: 6652: 6650: 6646: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6614:Permian Basin 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6571: 6569: 6563: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6551:United States 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6511:Seven Sisters 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6449: 6445: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6388: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6361: 6360: 6357: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6344: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6308: 6305: 6304: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6286: 6283: 6282: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6247: 6244: 6243: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6229: 6225: 6219: 6216: 6212: 6209: 6208: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6181: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6164:Core sampling 6162: 6161: 6159: 6157: 6153: 6141: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6102: 6100: 6096: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6055: 6052: 6048: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 6001:Indian Basket 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5978: 5976: 5974: 5970: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5952: 5948: 5941: 5936: 5934: 5929: 5927: 5922: 5921: 5918: 5912: 5909: 5906: 5903: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5884: 5865: 5864: 5856: 5853: 5840: 5836: 5830: 5827: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5799: 5796: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5768: 5765: 5752: 5748: 5742: 5739: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5708: 5702: 5700: 5696: 5684: 5683: 5678: 5671: 5668: 5662: 5659: 5643: 5636: 5635: 5627: 5624: 5611: 5604: 5598: 5595: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5554: 5546: 5542: 5536: 5533: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5503: 5500: 5497: 5493: 5490: 5484: 5481: 5469: 5462: 5455: 5452: 5440: 5436: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5417: 5414: 5403:on 2014-06-11 5401: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5381: 5378: 5373: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5342: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5300: 5292: 5289: 5278:on 2012-02-24 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5254: 5246: 5243: 5232:on 2008-05-27 5228: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5212: 5204: 5201: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5161: 5153: 5146: 5143: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5103: 5095: 5088: 5085: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5061: 5058: 5053: 5046: 5043: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5003: 4995: 4988: 4985: 4974:on 2011-10-19 4970: 4966: 4962: 4955: 4949: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4916: 4913: 4898: 4891: 4888: 4873: 4866: 4863: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4802: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4749: 4747: 4743: 4731: 4725: 4722: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4678: 4673: 4666: 4663: 4658: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4643: 4635: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4609: 4603: 4600: 4595: 4589: 4585: 4584: 4576: 4573: 4562: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4547: 4539: 4536: 4525: 4519: 4515: 4514: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4498: 4487: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4472: 4464: 4461: 4449: 4443: 4440: 4429: 4423: 4420:. p. 1. 4419: 4415: 4414: 4406: 4403: 4391: 4390: 4385: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4356:on 2012-02-11 4352: 4348: 4341: 4335: 4332: 4327: 4320: 4317: 4305: 4298: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4283: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4260: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4235: 4229: 4225: 4224: 4216: 4213: 4202:on 2012-03-05 4200: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4177: 4166:on 2008-10-06 4162: 4158: 4151: 4145: 4142: 4131:on 2009-05-09 4127: 4120: 4114: 4111: 4099: 4092: 4089: 4078:on 2007-11-18 4077: 4073: 4072: 4067: 4060: 4057: 4046: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4031: 4023: 4021: 4017: 4005: 4001: 3994: 3993: 3985: 3983: 3979: 3967: 3963: 3957: 3954: 3942: 3938: 3932: 3929: 3917: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3895: 3887: 3880: 3877: 3866: 3862: 3859: 3858: 3850: 3849: 3841: 3838: 3827:on 2022-10-05 3823: 3819: 3815: 3812: 3811: 3803: 3802: 3794: 3792: 3788: 3777:on 2012-01-25 3773: 3766: 3759: 3757: 3753: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3733: 3730: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3710: 3707: 3702: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3687: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3662:on 2007-09-28 3658: 3651: 3647: 3641: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3602: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3578: 3570: 3567: 3556: 3552: 3549: 3548: 3540: 3539: 3527: 3524: 3513: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3497: 3496: 3488: 3485: 3474:on 2007-09-28 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3457: 3449: 3448: 3440: 3437: 3426:on 2013-02-16 3422: 3418: 3414: 3407: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3378: 3372: 3368: 3367:10.17226/1440 3364: 3360: 3356: 3355: 3348: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3311: 3300: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3282: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3225: 3222: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3176: 3169: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3123: 3112:on 2011-07-16 3108: 3104: 3097: 3091: 3089: 3085: 3074: 3070: 3063: 3062: 3054: 3051: 3040: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3025: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3007: 2996:on 2012-02-24 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2979: 2971: 2970: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2954: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2934: 2929: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2898: 2891: 2885: 2882: 2871:on 2011-09-29 2870: 2866: 2862: 2856: 2853: 2842:on 2011-09-27 2841: 2837: 2836: 2831: 2824: 2821: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2789: 2781: 2774: 2772: 2768: 2757:on 2008-05-27 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2740: 2732: 2731: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2679: 2671: 2664: 2661: 2650:on 2008-09-16 2649: 2645: 2641: 2635: 2632: 2621:on 2014-02-21 2617: 2613: 2609: 2602: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2575: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2548: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2491: 2476: 2470: 2463: 2462: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2414: 2407: 2405: 2401: 2390: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2369: 2367: 2363: 2352:on 2014-11-08 2348: 2344: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2323: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2306: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2280: 2269: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2248: 2245: 2234:on 2012-02-06 2230: 2226: 2219: 2218: 2210: 2207: 2196: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2181: 2173: 2170: 2159:on 2011-07-26 2155: 2151: 2147: 2140: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2123: 2111: 2107: 2106: 2098: 2097: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2037: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2023: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1972:Environmental 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1935:derivatives, 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1875: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1859:nuclear power 1856: 1852: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1787: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1762: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1743: 1735: 1732: 1728: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1714:. Additional 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1678:hydrocracking 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1658:free radicals 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1630:air pollution 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1613: 1607: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1562: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1549:Joule heating 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1488: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1426:Chevron CRUSH 1423: 1415: 1414:Chevron CRUSH 1411: 1404: 1402: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1363: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1314: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1256: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1241: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1213:synthetic gas 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1190: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1166: 1162: 1154: 1153:supercritical 1150: 1142: 1140: 1133: 1129: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1086: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1053: 1048: 1045: 1044:fluidized bed 1041: 1040:rotating kiln 1033: 1031: 1027: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1016:Paraho Direct 1012: 1010: 1001: 996: 993: 991: 988: 984: 980: 977:processes or 976: 972: 968: 964: 962: 958: 955: 951: 935: 931: 926: 923: 915: 908: 905: 901: 897: 896:Chevron CRUSH 891: 887: 883: 879: 872: 869: 865: 861: 856: 852: 848: 844: 843:Fischer Assay 840: 831: 825: 821: 816: 812: 808: 804: 803:Lurgi-Ruhrgas 800: 796: 792: 783: 780: 776: 772: 768: 763: 759: 758:Paraho Direct 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 732: 728: 725:Underground ( 724: 721: 717: 714: 713: 707: 706: 703: 701: 697: 692: 690: 686: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 625: 621: 619: 611: 609: 607: 603: 599: 594: 592: 588: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 540: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 497:oil shale gas 495: 491: 487: 482: 480: 479:Fischer Assay 476: 472: 471:hydrogenation 468: 464: 460: 456: 447: 440: 438: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 403: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 356: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 322: 319: 315: 310: 302: 300: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 277: 275: 271: 265: 263: 259: 258: 253: 249: 244: 242: 238: 235:and removing 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 213:hydrogenation 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 178: 174: 170: 166: 163: 159: 156: 152: 148: 144: 143:Eesti Energia 140: 137: 133: 130: 127: 123: 120: 117: 113: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 91: 87: 84: 80: 77: 73: 69: 65: 60: 56: 50: 45: 37: 33: 19: 7443: 7330:Schlumberger 7260:Baker Hughes 7152:Marathon Oil 7142:Imperial Oil 7137:Husky Energy 7127:Galp Energia 7117:Devon Energy 7003:Saudi Aramco 6983:Petrovietnam 6928:NNPC Limited 6832:National oil 6712:Petrofiction 6680:Orphan wells 6648:Other topics 6619:Persian Gulf 6546:Saudi Arabia 6516:Standard Oil 6324:Well logging 6301: 6201:Petrophysics 5871:. 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June 2007 5473:22 December 4267:San Antonio 3966:Labor Daily 3916:11511/47124 3589:New Orleans 3029:McGraw-Hill 2890:"Oil Shale" 2498:|work= 2322:"Oil Shale" 1929:groundwater 1904:Spent shale 1712:diesel fuel 1576:heteroatoms 1500:radio waves 1348:groundwater 1283:a modified 981:processes. 839:Pumpherston 820:Shell Spher 811:Chevron STB 650:underground 630:By location 552:radio waves 544:endothermic 494:combustible 388:Middle East 380:Switzerland 364:New Zealand 345:James Young 7450:Categories 7350:Transocean 7217:Tullow Oil 7207:TechnipFMC 6973:PetroChina 6811:ExxonMobil 6717:Shale band 6594:East Texas 6567:and fields 6381:Downstream 6334:Production 6241:Completion 6169:Geophysics 6110:Production 6069:Production 6006:Indonesian 5981:Argus Sour 5973:Benchmarks 5608:(Report). 5560:(1): 1–2. 5445:2014-02-09 5407:2014-02-09 5282:2009-05-22 5236:2007-06-29 5194:2007-06-16 5136:2007-06-16 5036:2007-06-02 4978:2012-04-22 4906:2008-12-24 4881:2008-12-24 4856:2008-12-25 4795:2008-12-24 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