408:), a fitness advantage that allowed them to become an invasive species. A study by Fewell and Bertram was conducted to understand the source of these differences. The differences in fitness strategy were thought to be accounted for by the fact that African worker bees have a greater preference for pollen over nectar, which is a direct food resource for the emerging brood. Another important factor was thought to be differences between the species in age polyethism, or the allotment of different tasks as a honey bee ages. Young worker bees focus on in-hive assistance such as brood care, and the relatively younger African bee populations were thought to be one explanation for the emphasis on reproduction and colony expansion in the species. The study was also interested in the role different colony social environments and different genetic variation might play in the fitness discrepancies between the two subspecies.
354:
312:
have died as a result of 100–300 stings, it has been estimated that the average lethal dose for an adult is 500–1,100 bee stings. In terms of industrial honey production, in its natural habitat and the neo-tropics, the
African bee produces far more honey than its European counterparts. It is unclear if this is due to a superior nectar gathering ability, lack of adaptability in the European honey bees for tropical environment, or both. Producing more swarms and absconding (abandoning its nest) are also examples of adaptive traits for tropical environment. In times of prolonged dearth they would migrate to a better food source area, a strategy applied also by
417:
449:
A bee population must strike a balance in the distribution of resources towards the growth of the current colony members versus reproduction. If too much energy is expended on the maintenance of an adult colony, the bees will lose the chance to expand through reproduction but they will have older workers who specialize in nectar resources for energy (honey.) If too much energy is spent on reproduction, such a colony will be less equipped to survive drastic seasonal changes because they have younger workers who specialize in pollen for feeding the brood, not energy storage.
42:
458:
and it is more evolutionarily favorable for them to store nectar and honey. African bees are more vulnerable to less predictable times of scarcity or attack and it is therefore to their advantage to produce as many young as possible, increasing the likelihood that some or even many will survive. Such circumstances would have favored the worker bees who preferred harvesting nectar in
European colonies and pollen in African colonies, providing an explanation for how a divergence in worker behavior and age distribution evolved in
195:
60:
381:
advantage is so great that it is still more energetically favorable for a honey bee to collect warm nectar, even at low sugar concentrations (10%). Honey bees are energetically rewarded by harvesting nectar that is warmer than ambient temperatures because they make up for energy loss during foraging and obtain more nectar more easily.
318:, rather than waiting for a better season (European and Oriental bees). The lack of significant energy needs for thermoregulation of the brood nest in the tropics corresponds to a very rapid build-up of even the smallest african colonies, the higher in numbers and smaller in size swarming strategy makes perfect sense.
599:
preserving the propagation of their genes and contributing to their inclusive fitness. The parasitic model is more advantageous by comparison because it allows workers to directly reproduce offspring that are more closely related to them and greater in number, so they are a component of direct fitness.
634:
The underlying hypothesis for the aggressive behavior of East
African lowland honey bees is based on the idea that this race of bees evolved in an arid environment, where the bees' food was scarce. Under this situation, selection favored more aggressive colonies, which protected their food source and
593:
The multifaceted aspect of communication in social insects makes social insect colonies easy to hijack. Especially in the case of closely related species and subspecies, the biology and organization of potential host species are similar to that of potential parasitizing species, making them easier to
529:
Although many pheromones contribute to reproduction, pheromones made in the mandibular gland of queens have been closely linked to reproduction, and they are produced by workers that reproduce. The pheromones prevent others from attacking them, induce workers to recognize them as queen, and give them
457:
These two strategies have been adopted by the
European and African bees, respectively. European bees must survive the winter, an annual event with predictable mortality outcomes. Trying to meet the energetic needs of the colony and reproduction might decrease their overall survival during the winter
448:
Over time, distributions of the genotypic traits for worker food preference must have clustered around those conferring a proclivity towards resources that improved the fitness of the subspecies. The balancing of evolutionary costs and benefits have shaped the distribution of these genotypic traits.
380:
It appears that the cost of harvesting less-viscous nectar is that it is also less concentrated in sugar and would be an energetic loss for the honey bees. However, this is not the case; the speed of harvesting nectar with less viscosity increases the quantity harvested at a given time. The relative
311:
than a single
European bee sting, though East African lowland honey bees respond more quickly when disturbed than do European honey bees. They send out three to four times as many workers in response to a threat. They will also pursue an intruder for a greater distance from the hive. Although people
492:
queen. Social parasitism in the social insects can involve various forms of exploitation that disrupt the normal division of labor in the colony. The recent development of technology to study the genetic makeup of colonies has revealed that the offspring contribution of reproducing worker parasites
429:
reproductive rate. For example, having fewer or relatively older workers who prefer nectar means that the colony will not have the resources available to rapidly or efficiently feed new broods. Worker food preferences have been connected to genotypic variation at specific quantitative trait loci.
339:
includes the southern and eastern regions of Africa. The species was first imported across the
Atlantic Ocean to Brazil before it spread to Central America, South America, and southern areas of the United States. The Africanized honey bee thrives in tropical areas and is not well adapted for cold
372:
Nectar that is highly concentrated in sugar is more viscous and therefore reduces the speed of consumption and the size of honey bee crop loads. In cooler ambient temperatures, harvesting small, concentrated quantities of nectar does not allow honey bees to maintain the metabolism necessary for
598:
worker parasites is an example of an alternative evolutionary strategy that allows them to increase their "direct fitness in foreign colonies rather than inclusive fitness in their natal nests." Workers usually focus their efforts on raising and caring for larvae that are related to them, thus
584:
workers are able to disregard host queen signals. Pheromonal differences between the subspecies is a subject that requires more in-depth investigation to understand how such parasitization is made possible. As mandibular pheromones were a focus of the
Dietemann et al. study it is probable that
364:
Honey bees are challenged to balance energy consumption and replenishment in their pursuit of nectar. High thoracic temperatures required for foraging flight pose a thermoregulatory imbalance that honey bees attempt to alleviate by targeting particular viscosities and temperatures of nectar
428:
workers focused on pollen processing behaviors while
European workers focused on nectar processing behaviors. African bees were also more likely to store pollen while European bees stored honey. The study found that worker food preferences determined whether the colony maintained a certain
271:
into northern South Africa poses a threat to East
African lowland honey bees. If a female worker from a Cape honey bee colony enters an East African lowland honey bee nest, she is not attacked, partly due to her resemblance to the East African lowland honey bee queen. As she is capable of
618:. Organisms evolve reproductive strategies that ensure the survival and propagation of the organisms’ genes. Successful reproductive strategies cope with particular economic constraints experienced by the organism. The parasitic relationship between
538:
queen. The worker parasites and their increasing number of clones become the sole reproductive individuals in the colony. The destruction of the division of labor leads to reduced resources that eventually force the colony to leave or perish.
440:, and this is thought to be related to the fact that African colonies have a younger, skewed age distribution by comparison. However, this is not a direct cause for the different subsistence strategies between the two subspecies.
326:
The appearance of the East
African lowland honey bee is very similar to the European bee. However, the East African lowland honey bee is slightly smaller. Its upper body is covered in fuzz, and its abdomen is striped with black.
466:. Fewell and Bertram’s study is significant in that it provides a plausible method through which the fitness characteristics of the subspecies could have evolved from a small number of behavioral differences in worker bees.
512:
colonies in northern South Africa. The monopoly of this single lineage shows that they were able to subvert queen regulation of reproduction and worker recognition mechanisms. Dietemann et al. was able to prove that
373:
foraging flight. Harvesting warmer, less-viscous nectar is advantageous because of the energy gained by heat. Honey bees are able to stabilize their body temperature and make up for the energy lost by flying. In
551:
may have gained evolutionary advantage because, compared to other related species, it is not susceptible to the host queen’s pheromonal reproductive suppression of workers. The non-invasive varieties of
184:
424:
The main difference found between African and European honey bees were a few behavioral traits in the worker bees that were all related to the workers’ food preference. It was found that
635:
hive from predators and robbed bees from other colonies. This behavior allowed more aggressive colonies to survive where the less aggressive colonies eventually were selected against by
626:
is an example of how a normally successful strategy of chemical recognition and maintenance of a reproductive division of labor can be undermined by competing, exploitative strategies.
377:, it was found that crop loads were largely contained in the abdomen, though it remains unclear whether this balances out the aforementioned energy loss from the thorax during flight.
594:
infiltrate. On the other hand, potential parasites face the challenge of being discovered by the host queen, usually the sole reproductive individual in the colony. The existence of
1656:
384:
The bumblebee’s ability to differentiate flower warmth by color and target warmer flowers is one noted precedent for nectar temperature selection in honey bees.
2379:
737:
353:
610:
queen signal correctly or a resistance to the signal. Ultimately this is an interesting example of a preexisting weakness towards social parasitism by
2301:
2353:
1324:
Hartel, S; Neumann P; Raassen FS; Moritz RFA; Hepburn HR (2006). "Social parasitism by Cape honeybee workers in colonies of their own subspecies (
291:
workers are greatly under-represented in the foraging force), the death of the queen, and, before queen death, competition for egg laying between
1468:
Hoover, SER; Higo HA; Winston ML (2006). "Worker honeybee ovary development seasonal variation and the influence of larval and adult nutrition".
1629:
1372:
Dietemann, Vincent; Jochen Pflugfelder; Stephan Hartel; Peter Neumann; Robin M. Crewe (6 October 2006). "Social parasitism by honeybee workers (
711:
1940:
1611:
1578:
1107:
1043:
Fewell, Jennifer H.; Susan M. Bertram (2002). "Evidence for genetic variation in worker task performance by African and European honeybees".
750:
997:
Winston, ML; OR Taylor; GW Otis (1983). "Some differences between temperate European and tropical African and South American honeybees".
521:
queens while in their presence. The resulting breakdown of the division of labor leads to desertion or death of the parasitized colony.
2453:
1649:
416:
556:
produce less mandibular secretions than the invasive strain. In addition, they produce secretions that are not as similar to that of
2438:
2122:
1308:
648:
2448:
2314:
2175:
897:
Heyneman, AJ (1983). "Optimal sugar concentrations of floral nectars: dependence on sugar intake efficiency and foraging costs".
2180:
2443:
2358:
1726:
1511:
Neumann, P; Moritz RFA (2002). "The Cape honeybee phenomenon: they sympatric evolution of a social parasite in real-time".
1642:
2266:
2117:
2340:
2145:
1870:
2384:
41:
276:
reproduction, she may begin laying eggs which hatch as "clones" of herself, which will also lay eggs, causing the
2211:
2165:
2101:
2076:
1856:
1835:
1821:
1807:
1800:
365:
resources. In lower environmental temperatures where energy loss is more pronounced, it has been shown through
369:
that honey bees seek warmer, less-concentrated and less-viscous nectar, an energetically favorable behavior.
252:. It is native to central, southern and eastern Africa, though at the southern extreme it is replaced by the
2140:
1995:
1898:
1877:
1863:
476:
268:
59:
2228:
1891:
1884:
1842:
1814:
1427:
Hartel, S; Neumann P; Kryger P; von der Heide C; Moltzer G-J; Crewe RM; van Praagh JP; Moritz RFA (2006).
168:
2433:
2170:
2155:
2201:
1731:
1716:
1520:
1385:
1222:
1052:
906:
194:
2196:
2160:
2150:
2096:
1987:
1828:
1762:
2371:
283:
workers to increase in number. The death of the host colony results from the dwindling numbers of
2091:
1536:
1493:
1409:
1401:
1345:
1246:
1068:
979:
930:
54:
2405:
2081:
2069:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1767:
1721:
1690:
1607:
1574:
1485:
1304:
1238:
1154:
1103:
971:
922:
848:
746:
656:
636:
580:
queens, suggesting that quality or content of pheromones rather than quantity may explain how
403:
249:
145:
1603:
1947:
1595:
1528:
1477:
1448:
1393:
1337:
1277:
1230:
1189:
1174:"Genetic variation in worker temporal polyethism and colony defensiveness in the honey bee,
1144:
1136:
1095:
1060:
1006:
961:
914:
879:
838:
830:
2410:
866:
Shafir S., Afik O (2007). "Effect of ambient temperature on crop loading in the honey bee,
819:"Honeybees prefer warmer nectar and less viscous nectar, regardless of sugar concentration"
2392:
2043:
1999:
1747:
1086:
Page, RE; Robinson GE (1991). "The genetics of division of labour in honey bee colonies".
358:
273:
261:
396:
have higher rates of colony growth, reproduction, and swarming than European honey bees (
1524:
1389:
1226:
1056:
910:
883:
564:
to and greater ability to mimic and overwhelm the pheromonal regulation by host queens.
530:
access to higher quality foods. They also stop other workers from turning reproductive.
2048:
2023:
2007:
1904:
1793:
1757:
1149:
1124:
843:
818:
560:
queens as that of the invasive strain. The single lineage was selected for its greater
253:
218:
1634:
1099:
436:
bees begin foraging for pollen significantly earlier than their European counterparts
2427:
949:
260:). This subspecies has been determined to constitute one part of the ancestry of the
1596:
1540:
1349:
1250:
1072:
934:
2206:
1752:
1497:
1413:
1010:
786:
688:
314:
2319:
1140:
983:
488:
workers produce crucial pheromones, achieve reproductive status, and overthrow an
1298:
674:
Ruttner, F. 1988: Biogeography and Taxonomy of Honeybees. Springer Verlag, Berlin
17:
2366:
2327:
2260:
2018:
1962:
1849:
1772:
1695:
1172:
Giray, T; Guzman-Novoa E; Aron CW; Zelinsky B; Fahrbach SE; Robinson GE (2000).
397:
111:
2251:
1266:"Spatial distribution and nesting biology of colonies of the African honey bee"
517:
worker parasites were able to produce mandibular pheromones that mimic that of
420:
East African lowland worker bees entering and exiting a nest in a rock crevasse
2053:
2038:
2033:
2013:
1920:
1685:
1532:
1481:
1397:
1341:
1064:
585:
different glands contribute to the pheromones related to reproductive status.
245:
1194:
1173:
766:
Fletcher, David J.C. (2009). "African(ized) Bees: Their History and Future".
2288:
2028:
1991:
1952:
1680:
1665:
1453:
1428:
277:
131:
91:
71:
1489:
1242:
975:
926:
852:
834:
2397:
2345:
1282:
1265:
1158:
817:
Nicolson, Susan; Leo de Veer; Angela Kohler; Christian W. W. Pirk (2013).
2275:
2245:
1957:
1925:
308:
264:(also known as "killer bees") spreading through North and South America.
2306:
1405:
2280:
2086:
1983:
1930:
1711:
1234:
918:
2332:
1978:
1376:
Esch.): Evidence for pheromonal resistance to host queen's signals".
1125:"Major quantitative trait loci affecting honey bee foraging behavior"
357:
East African lowland worker bees foraging on pollen of an introduced
121:
101:
81:
2222:
966:
2293:
1935:
415:
352:
227: contact zone where the two subspecies overlap and hybridize
2226:
1638:
948:
AG, Dyer; Whitney HM; Arnold SEJ; Glover BJ; Chittka L (2006).
606:
succeeded either because of an inability to recognize the host
2003:
1209:
Seeley, TD (1978). "Life history strategy of the honey bee,
682:
680:
484:
hosts in the southern region of South Africa. Specifically,
1573:. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 307–33.
480:(the Cape honey bee) has monopolized social parasitism of
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
739:
The "African" Honey Bee. The processes of Africanization
823:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
812:
810:
808:
806:
804:
1433:
swarms by socially parasitic Cape honeybee workers (
534:
worker parasites create female clones and usurp the
2235:
2189:
2131:
2110:
2062:
1971:
1913:
1740:
1704:
1673:
307:A single East African lowland bee sting is no more
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
295:workers and the queen. When the colony dies, the
1602:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.
1650:
500:colonies were moved into the vicinity of the
8:
1123:Hunt, G; Page R; Fondrk M; Dullum C (1995).
2223:
1657:
1643:
1635:
950:"Bees associate warmth with floral colour"
193:
40:
31:
1452:
1281:
1193:
1148:
965:
842:
693:Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce
589:Evolutionary advantages and disadvantages
299:females will seek out a new host colony.
717:From laying workers to social parasites
432:African bees are "precocious foragers";
27:Subspecies of honey bee native to Africa
713:Moritz, R.F.A (2002) The Cape honeybee
667:
444:Trade-offs of two different strategies
287:workers that perform foraging duties (
1571:An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology
7:
731:
729:
727:
576:queens produce more pheromones than
453:Evolution of life history strategies
1513:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1470:Journal of Comparative Physiology B
1378:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1045:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
736:Rinderer, TE; Hellmich, RL (1981).
547:The single lineage of parasitizing
340:areas that receive heavy rainfall.
49:Worker bee (female) drinking water
25:
1741:Subspecies, Breeds and Phenotypes
1554:Holldobler, B; Wilson EO (1990).
543:Evolution of pheromone production
344:Foraging economics and bee habits
1264:McNally, L; Schneider S (1996).
58:
504:subspecies. Ten years later, a
35:East African lowland honey bee
1727:Bee learning and communication
1303:. Princeton University Press.
1011:10.1080/0005772X.1983.11097902
236:East African lowland honey bee
209:East African lowland honey bee
1:
1630:Apidologie.org — African Bees
1100:10.1016/s0065-2806(08)60093-4
1088:Advances in Insect Physiology
884:10.1127/entom.gen/29/2007/135
349:Nectar content and harvesting
1569:Davies, Nicholas B. (2012).
1297:Schmid-Hempel, Paul (1998).
789:. Smithsonian Marine Station
508:was found to be devastating
506:single clonal…worker lineage
394:A. mellifera scutellata
1871:Apis mellifera sinisxinyuan
1300:Parasites in Social Insects
1141:10.1093/genetics/141.4.1537
787:"Apis mellifera scutellata"
689:"Apis mellifera scutellata"
405:A. mellifera mellifera
399:A. mellifera ligustica
2470:
486:A. mellifera capensis
202:The natural ranges of the
2454:Insects described in 1836
2267:Apis mellifera scutellata
2237:Apis mellifera scutellata
2212:Honeybee Discovery Center
2123:Diseases of the honey bee
1850:Apis mellifera scutellata
1668:types and characteristics
1594:Dawkins, Richard (2006).
1533:10.1007/s00265-002-0518-7
1482:10.1007/s00360-005-0032-0
1431:Apis mellifera scutellata
1398:10.1007/s00265-006-0222-0
1342:10.1007/s00040-005-0857-2
1065:10.1007/s00265-002-0501-3
493:merits closer attention.
482:Apis mellifera scutellata
426:Apis mellifera scutellata
367:Apis mellifera scutellata
337:Apis mellifera scutellata
241:Apis mellifera scutellata
201:
192:
178:Apis mellifera scutellata
174:
167:
55:Scientific classification
53:
48:
39:
34:
2439:Western honey bee breeds
2190:Museums and insectariums
2102:Colony collapse disorder
2077:Varroa sensitive hygiene
1857:Apis mellifera siciliana
1836:Apis mellifera monticola
1822:Apis mellifera pomonella
1808:Apis mellifera artemisia
1801:Apis mellifera adansonii
1270:Environmental Entomology
870:(Hymenoptera: Apidae)".
719:Apidologie Special Issue
602:The invasive lineage of
388:Significance of foraging
267:The introduction of the
2449:Insects of South Africa
1996:Horizontal top-bar hive
1899:Apis mellifera unicolor
1878:Apis mellifera sossimai
1864:Apis mellifera simensis
1435:Apis mellifera capensis
1429:"Infestation levels of
1374:Apis mellifera capensis
1326:Apis mellifera capensis
715:Apis mellifera capensis
572:It was discovered that
477:Apis mellifera capensis
392:It has been noted that
258:Apis mellifera capensis
2063:Parasites and diseases
1892:Apis mellifera taurica
1885:Apis mellifera syriaca
1843:Apis mellifera remipes
1815:Apis mellifera litorea
1195:10.1093/beheco/11.1.44
835:10.1098/rspb.2013.1597
568:Pheromonal differences
421:
412:Behavioral differences
361:
335:The native habitat of
2444:Hymenoptera of Africa
1454:10.1051/apido:2006012
872:Entomologia Generalis
620:A. m. scutellata
616:A. m. scutellata
608:A. m. scutellata
574:A. m. scutellata
558:A. m. scutellata
536:A. m. scutellata
519:A. m. scutellata
510:A. m. scutellata
502:A. m. scutellata
490:A. m. scutellata
460:A. m. scutellata
434:A. m. scutellata
419:
375:A. m. scutellata
356:
285:A. m. scutellata
160:A. m. scutellata
2202:Bee Museum of Rhodes
2118:Topics in beekeeping
1717:Honey bee life cycle
768:American Bee Journal
464:A. m. ligustica
438:A. m. ligustica
2197:Malacca Bee Gallery
2097:Deformed wing virus
1988:BS National Beehive
1829:Apis mellifera meda
1763:Carniolan honey bee
1525:2002BEcoS..52..271N
1390:2006BEcoS..60..785D
1283:10.1093/ee/25.3.643
1227:1978Oecol..32..109S
1057:2002BEcoS..52..318F
911:1983Oecol..60..198H
624:A. m. capensis
612:A. m. capensis
604:A. m. capensis
596:A. m. capensis
582:A. m. capensis
578:A. m. capensis
554:A. m. capensis
549:A. m. capensis
532:A. m. capensis
515:A. m. capensis
498:A. m. capensis
293:A. m. capensis
289:A. m. capensis
281:A. m. capensis
2092:American foulbrood
1235:10.1007/bf00344695
1182:Behavioral Ecology
919:10.1007/bf00379522
525:Method and results
422:
362:
2421:
2420:
2406:Open Tree of Life
2229:Taxon identifiers
2220:
2219:
2082:Small hive beetle
2071:Varroa destructor
1788:Western honey bee
1783:Russian honey bee
1778:Maltese honey bee
1768:European dark bee
1691:Laying worker bee
1613:978-0-19-929115-1
1580:978-1-4051-1416-5
1109:978-0-12-024223-8
752:978-0-429-30874-1
657:Western honey bee
637:natural selection
250:western honey bee
232:
231:
146:A. mellifera
18:African honey bee
16:(Redirected from
2461:
2414:
2413:
2401:
2400:
2388:
2387:
2375:
2374:
2362:
2361:
2349:
2348:
2336:
2335:
2323:
2322:
2310:
2309:
2297:
2296:
2284:
2283:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2224:
1948:Honey extraction
1941:Alcoholic drinks
1659:
1652:
1645:
1636:
1618:
1617:
1601:
1598:The Selfish Gene
1591:
1585:
1584:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1465:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1369:
1354:
1353:
1330:Insectes Sociaux
1321:
1315:
1314:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1169:
1163:
1162:
1152:
1135:(4): 1537–1545.
1120:
1114:
1113:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1040:
1015:
1014:
994:
988:
987:
969:
945:
939:
938:
894:
888:
887:
878:(2–4): 135–148.
863:
857:
856:
846:
814:
799:
798:
796:
794:
782:
776:
775:
763:
757:
756:
744:
733:
722:
709:
703:
702:
700:
699:
684:
675:
672:
262:Africanized bees
226:
216:
206:
197:
180:
63:
62:
44:
32:
21:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2409:
2404:
2396:
2393:Observation.org
2391:
2383:
2378:
2370:
2365:
2357:
2352:
2344:
2339:
2331:
2326:
2318:
2313:
2305:
2300:
2292:
2287:
2279:
2274:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2244:
2231:
2221:
2216:
2185:
2133:
2127:
2106:
2058:
2044:Honey extractor
2000:Langstroth hive
1967:
1909:
1748:Africanized bee
1736:
1700:
1669:
1663:
1626:
1621:
1614:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1371:
1370:
1357:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1311:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1122:
1121:
1117:
1110:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1042:
1041:
1018:
996:
995:
991:
967:10.1038/442525a
947:
946:
942:
896:
895:
891:
865:
864:
860:
816:
815:
802:
792:
790:
784:
783:
779:
765:
764:
760:
753:
742:
735:
734:
725:
710:
706:
697:
695:
686:
685:
678:
673:
669:
665:
645:
632:
591:
570:
545:
527:
472:
455:
446:
414:
390:
351:
346:
333:
324:
305:
274:parthenogenetic
228:
224:
222:
214:
212:
204:
188:
182:
176:
163:
149:
57:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2467:
2465:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2426:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2402:
2389:
2376:
2363:
2350:
2337:
2324:
2311:
2298:
2285:
2272:
2257:
2241:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2227:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2183:
2178:
2176:United Kingdom
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2137:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2049:Queen excluder
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2024:Wax foundation
2021:
2016:
2011:
2008:Stewarton hive
1981:
1975:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1905:Honey bee race
1902:
1895:
1888:
1881:
1874:
1867:
1860:
1853:
1846:
1839:
1832:
1825:
1818:
1811:
1804:
1797:
1794:Apis laboriosa
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1758:Cape honey bee
1755:
1750:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1670:
1664:
1662:
1661:
1654:
1647:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1624:External links
1622:
1620:
1619:
1612:
1586:
1579:
1561:
1546:
1519:(4): 271–281.
1503:
1460:
1419:
1384:(6): 785–793.
1355:
1336:(2): 183–193.
1316:
1309:
1289:
1256:
1221:(1): 109–118.
1211:Apis mellifera
1201:
1176:Apis mellifera
1164:
1115:
1108:
1078:
1051:(4): 318–325.
1016:
989:
940:
905:(2): 198–213.
889:
868:Apis mellifera
858:
800:
777:
758:
751:
723:
721:33 (2), 99–244
704:
687:Masterson, J.
676:
666:
664:
661:
660:
659:
654:
651:Apis mellifera
649:Subspecies of
644:
641:
631:
628:
590:
587:
569:
566:
544:
541:
526:
523:
471:
470:Parasitization
468:
454:
451:
445:
442:
413:
410:
389:
386:
350:
347:
345:
342:
332:
329:
323:
320:
304:
301:
269:Cape honey bee
254:Cape honey bee
230:
229:
223:
219:Cape honey bee
213:
203:
199:
198:
190:
189:
183:
172:
171:
169:Trinomial name
165:
164:
157:
155:
151:
150:
143:
141:
137:
136:
129:
125:
124:
119:
115:
114:
109:
105:
104:
99:
95:
94:
89:
85:
84:
79:
75:
74:
69:
65:
64:
51:
50:
46:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2466:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2412:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2268:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2225:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2182:
2181:United States
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1660:
1655:
1653:
1648:
1646:
1641:
1640:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1615:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1599:
1590:
1587:
1582:
1576:
1572:
1565:
1562:
1557:
1550:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1464:
1461:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1423:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1310:0-691-05924-1
1306:
1302:
1301:
1293:
1290:
1284:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1202:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1177:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
993:
990:
985:
981:
977:
973:
968:
963:
960:(7102): 525.
959:
955:
951:
944:
941:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
890:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
862:
859:
854:
850:
845:
840:
836:
832:
829:(1767): 1–8.
828:
824:
820:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
801:
788:
785:Materson, J.
781:
778:
774:(9): 863–870.
773:
769:
762:
759:
754:
748:
745:. CRC press.
741:
740:
732:
730:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
705:
694:
690:
683:
681:
677:
671:
668:
662:
658:
655:
653:
652:
647:
646:
642:
640:
638:
629:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
600:
597:
588:
586:
583:
579:
575:
567:
565:
563:
559:
555:
550:
542:
540:
537:
533:
524:
522:
520:
516:
511:
507:
503:
499:
496:In 1990, 400
494:
491:
487:
483:
479:
478:
469:
467:
465:
461:
452:
450:
443:
441:
439:
435:
430:
427:
418:
411:
409:
407:
406:
401:
400:
395:
387:
385:
382:
378:
376:
370:
368:
360:
359:foxtail agave
355:
348:
343:
341:
338:
330:
328:
321:
319:
317:
316:
310:
302:
300:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
279:
275:
270:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
242:
237:
220:
210:
200:
196:
191:
186:
181:
179:
173:
170:
166:
162:
161:
156:
153:
152:
148:
147:
142:
139:
138:
135:
134:
130:
127:
126:
123:
120:
117:
116:
113:
110:
107:
106:
103:
100:
97:
96:
93:
90:
87:
86:
83:
80:
77:
76:
73:
70:
67:
66:
61:
56:
52:
47:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
2434:Apis (genus)
2236:
2207:Honey Museum
2134:by countries
2070:
1897:
1890:
1883:
1876:
1869:
1862:
1855:
1848:
1841:
1834:
1827:
1820:
1813:
1806:
1799:
1792:
1753:Buckfast bee
1597:
1589:
1570:
1564:
1555:
1549:
1516:
1512:
1506:
1476:(1): 55–63.
1473:
1469:
1463:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1430:
1422:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1299:
1292:
1273:
1269:
1259:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1204:
1185:
1181:
1175:
1167:
1132:
1128:
1118:
1091:
1087:
1081:
1048:
1044:
1002:
998:
992:
957:
953:
943:
902:
898:
892:
875:
871:
867:
861:
826:
822:
791:. Retrieved
780:
771:
767:
761:
738:
718:
714:
707:
696:. Retrieved
692:
670:
650:
633:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
601:
595:
592:
581:
577:
573:
571:
561:
557:
553:
548:
546:
535:
531:
528:
518:
514:
509:
505:
501:
497:
495:
489:
485:
481:
475:
473:
463:
459:
456:
447:
437:
433:
431:
425:
423:
404:
398:
393:
391:
383:
379:
374:
371:
366:
363:
336:
334:
325:
315:Apis dorsata
313:
306:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
266:
257:
240:
239:
235:
233:
208:
177:
175:
159:
158:
154:Subspecies:
144:
132:
29:
2367:NatureServe
2328:iNaturalist
2261:Wikispecies
2166:New Zealand
2132:Beekeeping
2019:Honey super
1963:Royal jelly
1914:Cultivation
1773:Italian bee
1558:. Springer.
1447:: 462–470.
1276:: 643–652.
1094:: 118–169.
112:Hymenoptera
2428:Categories
2054:Jenter kit
2039:Bee smoker
2034:Queen clip
2014:Hive frame
1921:Beekeeping
1712:Bee colony
1705:Life cycle
1686:Worker bee
1674:Bee castes
1441:Apidologie
793:1 November
698:2013-12-08
663:References
562:resistance
322:Appearance
246:subspecies
217: the
185:Lepeletier
92:Arthropoda
2141:Australia
2029:Hive tool
1992:Flow Hive
1972:Equipment
1953:Honeycomb
1696:Drone bee
1681:Queen bee
1666:Honey bee
1328:Esch.)".
1215:Oecologia
1188:: 44–55.
1005:: 12–21.
999:Bee World
899:Oecologia
630:Evolution
303:Character
278:parasitic
221:, and the
140:Species:
78:Kingdom:
72:Eukaryota
2372:2.858897
2307:11044201
2276:BugGuide
2252:Q2034820
2246:Wikidata
1958:Propolis
1926:Apiology
1732:Swarming
1556:The Ants
1541:12117374
1490:16228242
1406:25063876
1350:44927091
1251:12784020
1243:28308672
1129:Genetics
1073:22128779
976:16885975
935:32118291
927:28310487
853:23902913
643:See also
309:venomous
297:capensis
118:Family:
88:Phylum:
82:Animalia
68:Domain:
2359:1131133
2171:Ukraine
2156:Ireland
2146:Hungary
2087:Waxworm
1984:Beehive
1931:Beeswax
1521:Bibcode
1498:8253649
1437:Esch.)"
1414:1218222
1386:Bibcode
1223:Bibcode
1159:8601492
1150:1206885
1053:Bibcode
907:Bibcode
844:3735266
331:Habitat
248:of the
244:) is a
128:Genus:
108:Order:
102:Insecta
98:Class:
2398:235082
2385:212527
2333:121322
2294:APISMZ
1979:Apiary
1610:
1577:
1539:
1496:
1488:
1412:
1404:
1348:
1307:
1249:
1241:
1157:
1147:
1106:
1071:
984:432440
982:
974:
954:Nature
933:
925:
851:
841:
749:
225:
215:
207:
205:
187:, 1836
122:Apidae
2411:85741
2281:96155
2161:Nepal
2151:India
2111:Lists
1936:Honey
1722:Brood
1606:–88.
1537:S2CID
1494:S2CID
1410:S2CID
1402:JSTOR
1346:S2CID
1247:S2CID
1069:S2CID
980:S2CID
931:S2CID
743:(PDF)
2380:NCBI
2354:ITIS
2346:6362
2315:GISD
2302:GBIF
2289:EPPO
1608:ISBN
1575:ISBN
1486:PMID
1305:ISBN
1239:PMID
1155:PMID
1104:ISBN
972:PMID
923:PMID
849:PMID
795:2013
747:ISBN
622:and
474:The
462:and
402:and
234:The
133:Apis
2341:ISC
2320:325
2004:Nuc
1529:doi
1478:doi
1474:176
1449:doi
1394:doi
1338:doi
1278:doi
1231:doi
1213:".
1190:doi
1145:PMC
1137:doi
1133:141
1096:doi
1061:doi
1007:doi
962:doi
958:442
915:doi
880:doi
839:PMC
831:doi
827:280
772:149
639:.
614:in
2430::
2408::
2395::
2382::
2369::
2356::
2343::
2330::
2317::
2304::
2291::
2278::
2263::
2248::
2006:,
2002:-
1998:,
1994:,
1990:,
1604:66
1535:.
1527:.
1517:52
1515:.
1492:.
1484:.
1472:.
1445:37
1443:.
1439:.
1408:.
1400:.
1392:.
1382:60
1380:.
1358:^
1344:.
1334:53
1332:.
1274:25
1272:.
1268:.
1245:.
1237:.
1229:.
1219:32
1217:.
1186:11
1184:.
1180:.
1153:.
1143:.
1131:.
1127:.
1102:.
1092:23
1090:.
1067:.
1059:.
1049:52
1047:.
1019:^
1003:64
1001:.
978:.
970:.
956:.
952:.
929:.
921:.
913:.
903:60
901:.
876:29
874:.
847:.
837:.
825:.
821:.
803:^
770:.
726:^
691:.
679:^
2010:)
1986:(
1658:e
1651:t
1644:v
1616:.
1583:.
1543:.
1531::
1523::
1500:.
1480::
1457:.
1451::
1416:.
1396::
1388::
1352:.
1340::
1313:.
1286:.
1280::
1253:.
1233::
1225::
1198:.
1192::
1178:"
1161:.
1139::
1112:.
1098::
1075:.
1063::
1055::
1013:.
1009::
986:.
964::
937:.
917::
909::
886:.
882::
855:.
833::
797:.
755:.
701:.
256:(
238:(
211:,
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
