1266:, an elite burial from the seventh century. However, the helmet itself could date as early as the first quarter of the sixth century. The helmet's bowl comprises one piece of metal, and attached to it are cheek pieces, a metal neck guard, and a face mask. The helmet is elaborately decorated; a winged dragon on the face plate soars upwards to confront a two-headed dragon running along the crest, while embossed foil sheets of tinned bronze, forming five different designs, cover nearly the entire helmet. The decorations on the helmet are similar to others found in England, as well as Germany and Scandinavia. The helmet itself bears similarity to helmets found at
492:
length ranged from 1.6 to 2.8 metres (5 ft 3 inâ9 ft 3 in). The end of the spear was sometimes protected with an iron ferrule, forming a hollow (or, less commonly, solid) cone which fit over the shaft. However, there was much diversity in the sizes and shapes of spearheads. Spearheads were sometimes decorated, with bronze and silver inlay placed on the blade and socket; in such instances, a simple ring-and-dot motif was most common. Occasionally, the ferrule was decorated to match the spearhead. It is possible that the shafts were also decorated, perhaps by being painted. Evidence for decorated shafts has been found in Danish contexts.
1000:. The third group is barbed arrowheads, which usually had a tang that was driven into the shaft or tied to it. Underwood suggested that the leaf-shaped and barbed arrowheads developed from arrows that were used for hunting. As for bodkins, he proposed that they were designed for use against armoured opponentsâthe long tapering point would pass through the chain links of mail or puncture the iron plate of a helmet if shot at close range. Due to the fact that arrowheads varied in size from 5.5 cm (2 inches) to 15.5 cm (6 inches), there is some degree of difficulty in distinguishing between the heads of large arrows and small javelins.
1148:
seventh century onward. These bosses were constructed of an iron sheet (or sheets), and were welded together from the rim to the apex. Iron or bronze rivets were then used to attach the boss to the shield; four or five rivets were most commonly used, although as many as twelve were used in some instances. Behind the boss, the shield was cut and an iron grip was attached to the opening, so that the shield could be held. Grips were usually 10 to 16 cm (4 to 6 in) in length, the sides of which were either straight or gently curved. Evidence indicates that flanges were sometimes used to enclose a wooden handle.
1092:
608:
554:'s forces and a group of Vikings. In this account, one of the Vikings threw a javelin at Byrhtnoth; the Earl partially deflected it with his shield, but he was nevertheless wounded. Byrhtnoth then retaliated by throwing two javelins at the Vikingsâone pierced a Viking's neck and another penetrated his chest. The Vikings threw a javelin again, wounding Byrnhoth once more, but one of the Earl's warriors pulled the javelin from the wound and threw it back, killing another Viking. Following this exchange, the two sides drew their swords and engaged in hand-to-hand combat.
1042:) records an event in which the saint and his companions were attacked by pagans when their ship ran aground. One of the companions launched a stone from a sling, killing the pagan priest. As for hunting, however, the Bayeux Tapestry depicts a man hunting birds using a sling. Underwood suggests that except for use as a last resort, the sling was not regarded as a weapon of war. Furthermore, he proposed that the event recorded in Wilfrid's hagiography may not be an accurate account, but rather a reflection of the writer's desire to
738:. On some swords from the sixth century onward, rings were attached to the upper guard or pommel, many of which were ornamented. These rings sometimes served a practical purposeâfor example, a soldier could tie a cord to the ring and subsequently hang the sword from their wrist. This practice is attested in later Viking sagas. In other cases, however, ring knobs were used and it was impossible to hang the sword in this manner. Therefore, ring knobs were likely symbolic or ritualistic.
861:
1291:
1224:
the many rings. However, mail was less effective at preventing spear injuriesâthe concentrated force of spears could break a few links and allow the spear to enter the body, sometimes causing the rings to enter with it. Mailcoats added a great deal of weight to the warrior and made mobility more difficult; therefore, wearers of mailcoats were greatly disadvantaged in skirmishes and fast-moving battle lines. Mail also rusted easily, and had to be maintained as a result.
1161:
49:
290:. The vast majority of these weapons were buried in graves of men, but they also were buried in the graves of women. In a non-funerary context, weapons were occasionally deposited in the ground or near rivers. However, the establishment of a literate Christian clergy in Anglo-Saxon England resulted in the production of several textual sources that describe weapons and their use in battle. Some of these literary sources include the poems
972:, arrows and a bow were included as grave goods. It is possible that other arrows were fire-hardened or tipped with organic materials such as bone and antler, and as a result have not survived in graves. Given that neither bow staves nor arrows were likely to survive in the soils of England (both being made of wood), it is likely that they were interred as grave goods more often than it appears. In Old English, the bow was known as a
1252:
1248:, also makes some references to helmets. Four mostly intact Anglo-Saxon helmets have been discovered, although archaeologists have unearthed additional fragments of what might have been helmets. All the helmets which have been found are substantially different from the others in their construction and ornamentation. It is possible that most helmets were made of boiled leather and therefore did not physically survive.
502:, or barbed spears, which were used as missiles. Once the spearhead had penetrated an enemy's body, the barb caused much difficulty in removing the weapon, thus increasing the likelihood that the pierced individual would die as a result of the wound. If the spearhead penetrated an enemy's shield, it would have been difficult to remove, thus rendering that shield heavy and difficult to use. It is possible that these
907:, from which the Modern English word derives. Most axes found in early Anglo-Saxon graves were fairly small with straight or slightly curved blades. Such hand-axes primarily served as tools rather than weapons, but could have been used as the latter if the need arose. Fragments of the wood shafts survive in only a few examples, thus causing considerable difficulty in ascertaining the overall size of the weapon.
671:
952:
384:, also refer to the use of weapons in combat; however, these sources are difficult to accurately date and it is unclear to what extent such descriptions are the creation of their authors' imaginations. The law codes and wills authored in the tenth and eleventh centuries also provide some insight into the military equipment used by the Anglo-Saxon nobility in this period.
1152:
two sides on the battlefield. Smaller shields were lighter and easier to manoeuver, and therefore were best used in minor skirmishes and hand-to-hand combat. In contrast, larger shields were most commonly used in full-scale battlesâthey would have provided better protection from projectiles and were needed to construct a shield wall.
667:, which was decorated with inlaid gold. These Anglo-Saxon blades, the tang included, typically measured 86â94 cm (34â37 in) in length, and 4.5â5.5 cm (1.8â2.2 in) in width. Larger examples have been found, with some reaching up to 100 cm (39 in) in length and 6.5 cm (2.6 in) in width.
891:
more of a status symbol, pointing out that the shorter, common seaxes were "both too small and too highly ornamented for everyday functional use." He concludes that they may well have been used by hunters, suggesting that in time they evolved from a symbol of "the hunting man" to "the mark of a freeman."
1223:
Mail would have greatly protected a warrior in battles by reducing the impact of enemy blows, and therefore those who wore mail had a significant advantage over opponents who did not. They were particularly effective against cuts by a sword or axe, since the impact was absorbed and distributed across
1007:
Franks Casket, an archer is shown defending a hall from a group of warriors. There are twenty-nine archers depicted on the eleventh-century Bayeux
Tapestry. Twenty-three these appear in the lower margin, and six are shown in the main scene. However, only one archer is an Anglo-Saxonâthe remainder are
890:
could be considered a weapon, while the shorter ones were general-purpose tools. Underwood proposed that the long-seax was used for hunting rather than warfare, citing a
Frankish pictorial calendar which featured two men killing a boar, one man wielding a long-seax. David Gale suggests that they were
437:
from 688 to 726 CE) stipulate the imposition of fines for anyone who assists the escape of another's servant by lending them a weapon. The amount of the fine depended upon the weaponâthe fine was greater for a spear than for a sword. Pollington asserted that the "Germanic peoples took great pride in
1404:
Artistic elements of Anglo-Saxon weapons are greatly similar to weapon art found in other parts of northern Europe and
Scandinavia, indicating that these regions were in continual contact with one another. Some external developments were adapted by the English, but it is clear that developments from
1151:
As for defensive equipment, most Anglo-Saxon warriors only had access to shields. Pollington theorized that the shield was "perhaps the most culturally significant piece of defensive equipment" in Anglo-Saxon
England, for the shield-wall would have symbolically represented the separation between the
1135:
have also been discovered. The diameter of shields greatly varied, ranging from 0.3 to 0.92 m (1 to 3 ft), although most shields were between 0.46 to 0.66 m (1 ft 6 in to 2 ft 2 in) in diameter. Their thickness ranged from 5â13 mm (0.20â0.51 in), but most
686:
into a complete billet, the furnaces of the period were only able to produce small pieces of iron, which were subsequently forge welded into a single blade. To accomplish this, the pieces would either be beaten into thin sheets that were then hammered together as a laminated blade or placed together
339:
Archaeological evidence for Anglo-Saxon weaponry allows the documentation of the chronological development of weapon styles over time and the identification of regional variations. However, questions have been raised as to how representative these items, specifically deposited with a purpose, are of
991:
were common in
Northwestern Europe during the early medieval period. Long bow staves were constructed from a single piece of wood, and the string was made of hair or animal gut. Underwood suggested that the maximum shooting distance of an Anglo-Saxon bow would have been about 150 to 200 metres (500
463:
Spears were the most common weapons in Anglo-Saxon
England. They have been found in about 85% of weapon-containing early Anglo-Saxon graves. Overall, approximately 40% of adult male graves from this period contained spears. In many Northern European societies (likely including Anglo-Saxon England),
1147:
boss was the most common typeâthe design originated in continental Europe, and such bosses found in
England date from the fifth to the mid-seventh century, at least. It is unclear exactly how carinated bosses were manufactured. The other type is the tall cone boss, which was commonly used from the
343:
Scholarly knowledge of warfare itself relies mostly on literary evidence, which was produced in the
Christian context of the late Anglo-Saxon period, from the eighth to the eleventh century. These literary sources are almost entirely authored by Christian clergy, and thus they do not specifically
491:
The spear itself consisted of an iron spearhead mounted on a wooden shaft, often made of ash wood, although shafts of hazel, apple, oak, and maple wood have been found. There is little evidence as to the ordinary length of these spears, although estimates based on grave goods indicate that their
1368:
According to
Underwood, any smith could have manufactured basic weapons, such as spearheads and knives. However, he proposed that a specialist was required to manufacture swords and many other weapons. Archaeologists have discovered some Anglo-Saxon smith's toolsâa set of tools from the seventh
753:
also appears in Anglo-Saxon literature and may have had the same meaning. The scabbard itself was typically made of wood or leather, and the inside was often lined with fleece or fur. The inside might have also been greased or oiled to prevent the sword from rusting. Some scabbards were further
876:
were commonly constructed using pattern-welding, even in late Anglo-Saxon
England when this practice had become uncommon for swords. The blades were sometimes decorated with incised lines or metal inlays, and a number of examples contain inscriptions bearing the name of the owner or maker. The
1203:
The coat of mail found at Sutton Hoo comprised iron rings 8 mm (0.31 in) in diameter. Some rings were filled in with copper rivets, indicating that the coat was made of alternate rows of riveted and forged rings. When worn, the coat probably extended to the hip. The manufacture of a
1196:, but it is severely damaged by corrosion. Therefore, the scarcity of archaeological examples may simply be due to the widespread corrosion of mail. A completely intact coat of mail from the fourth or fifth century, similar to those that probably were used in Anglo-Saxon England, was found in
310:
Evidence for arms and armour in Anglo-Saxon England derives from three types of sources â archaeological, textual, and illustrative â all of which raise different interpretation issues and are not evenly distributed in a chronological manner. Due to the frequent inclusion of weapons as
815:. This term applied to single-edged knives that had a blade length of 8 and 31 cm (3 and 12 in), and to the "long-seax" (or single-edged swords) which had a blade length of 54 to 76 cm (21 to 30 in). Archaeologists and historians have sometimes referred to the
967:
Examples of Anglo-Saxon archery equipment are rare. Iron arrowheads have been discovered in approximately 1% of early Anglo-Saxon graves, and traces of wood from the bow stave are occasionally found in the soil of inhumations. In the rare case of the Chessel Down cemetery on the
801:, indicates that they were used primarily for cutting and slashing rather than thrusting. Several Anglo-Saxon corpses were apparently injured or killed in this manner; the cemetery of Eccles in Kent contains three individuals who had sword cuts to the left sides of their skulls.
885:
Apparently, most Anglo-Saxon men and women carried knives to prepare food and perform other domestic activities. In a conflict, however, a knife could have been used to kill an already wounded enemy, or they could have been used in a brawl. Pollington suggested that the longer
691:. With this method, the iron was beaten into strips, which were twisted together and then forge welded. The twisting removed much surface slag, which could cause weaknesses in the finished blade. Pattern welding also produced patterns in the finished blade, most commonly a
319:, the "deposition of grave-goods was a ritual act, wherein weaponry could symbolise age, ethnicity or rank; at various times and places a token weapon might be used to illustrate such concepts." In addition, some late Anglo-Saxon weapons have been found at riversides. The
793:
on the shoulder or from a belt on the waist. The former method was evidently popular in early Anglo-Saxon England, but the latter gained popularity in the later Anglo-Saxon period. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry only depicts the use of belts for sword carrying.
916:, or throwing axe, have been found in England. Such weapons can be distinguished from domestic hand axes by the curved shape of their heads. Two main forms of throwing axes have been identified in Englandâone type had a convex edge, and the other type had an
452:
881:
was kept in a leather sheath, the sheaths themselves sometimes being decorated with embossed designs and silver or bronze fittings. Evidence from graves suggests that the sheath was belted to the carrier, with the hilt on the right-hand side of the body.
936:
originated. However, various medieval authors used the term to refer to hand axes as well as throwing axes. The archaeological record indicates that the throwing axe was no longer in use by the seventh century, and it does not appear in the Frankish
618:
Pollington describes the sword as "the most symbolically important weapon" of the Anglo-Saxon period, and historian Guy Halsall referred to it as "the most treasured item of early medieval military equipment." In Old English, swords were termed
1079:
was attached. It was common for shields to be covered in leather, so as to hold the planks together, and they were often decorated with fittings of bronze or iron. Textual descriptions and visual representations indicate that some shields were
1328:
was discovered at a female grave. The boar was apparently a helmet crest, but no other helmet pieces were found there; therefore, the crest may have been detached from the helmet before being buried. There is also a boar crest on the
995:
Anglo-Saxon arrowheads have been divided into three main types. The first group is leaf-shaped arrowheads, which typically contained a socket that allowed the head to be attached to the wooden shaft. The second group consists of
1352:, but the helmet itself was made by the Angles. Iron plates were used to construct the helmet bowlâiron cheek-pieces were hinged to the sides, and curtain of mail was attached at the back of the helmet for neck protection. The
495:
In battles, spears were used as missiles and as thrusting weapons during hand-to-hand combat. In most cases, it is not possible to identify for which of these two purposes a spear was specifically designed for. An exception is
715:, which was a shallow groove that ran the length of the blade. The fuller reduced the blade's overall weight while not compromising the thickness. Fullers were produced by hammering into the blade or chiselling out a section.
1236:. In battle, helmets would have served to protect the wearer's head from enemy blows. Evidence indicates that helmets were never common in Anglo-Saxon England, although their usage may have increased by the eleventh century.
575:
also describes a spear being used in this way. However, doing so would have required the warrior to relinquish the protection offered by a shield. To be more effective, ranks of spearmen would stand together to form a
1316:. The frame comprises seven pieces of iron, and the helmet is crested with a bronze boar figureâthe figure is decorated with garnet eyes mounted in beaded gold, along with gilded, inlayed tusks and ears. In
856:
knife was different from other knives; it had a unique length and single cutting edge. It varied in length from 4â20 in (10â51 cm), and typically had a long wood (but occasionally iron) handle.
1274:
in Sweden, leading to speculation that it was made in Sweden or by a Swedish craftsman who lived in England. Possible fragments of helmet crests similar to the one at Sutton Hoo have been discovered in
1244:
ordered the manufacture of helmets. The Bayeux Tapestry reflects the idea that helmets were a standard piece of military equipment for an Anglo-Saxon army by 1066. Late Anglo-Saxon literature, such as
1084:, but archaeological evidence for this has not yet been found. No painted Anglo-Saxon shields have been discovered; however, painted shields from the same time period have been found in Denmark, and
992:
to 650 feet). However, he also noted that the power of the arrow would have been greatly diminished beyond 100 to 120 metres (325 to 400 feet), and it only would have caused relatively minor wounds.
1356:
plate, interlaced with engravings of animals, extended over the eyebrows and ended in small canine designs at the head. At the two helmet crests, there are Latin inscriptions praising the Christian
895:
concurs with Gale's assessment, mentioning that he had performed a practical demonstration of the "total ineffectiveness against both spear and sword" at a conference in Oxford in January 1987.
1188:. It is frequently referred to in late Anglo-Saxon literature, but few examples have been found archaeologically. The only known complete Anglo-Saxon mailcoat was discovered in the cemetery at
1212:. The wire was then tightly coiled around a circular ring approximately 10 mm (0.39 in) in diameter. The smith would then chisel any individual circuits off the rod, reheat it, and
943:. This decline in usage may indicate the rise of more sophisticated battle formations. However, it again entered into use in the eighth and ninth centuries, upon its adoption by the Vikings.
391:. However, the artists may have been following artistic conventions concerning the depiction of warriors and weapons rather than accurately portraying the use of such items in their society.
546:
Underwood suggested an effective range of 12â15 metres (40â50 feet) for spears thrown as javelins, depending on the skill of the individual throwing it and the javelin's length and weight.
1409:
was evidently created in Kent in the mid-500s, but by the seventh century it had become widespread across Europe, being used by Germanic-speaking peoples as well as in Finland and the
354:
mentions various battles that had taken place, but gives few details. Therefore, scholars often draw from literary sources produced by neighbouring societies, such as the continental
1059:
The shield was another extremely common piece of war equipment used by the Anglo-Saxonsânearly 25% of male Anglo-Saxon graves contain shields. In Old English, a shield was called a
561:, while the latter method is depicted on the eleventh-century Bayeux Tapestry. In some instances, spears may have been held with both hands. An eighth-century relief carving from
464:
spears could only be carried by a freeman, with law codes prescribing strict punishments for any slaves discovered to possess one. In Old English, they were most commonly termed
387:
Artistic depictions of soldiers bearing weapons can also be found in some Anglo-Saxon sculpture. Such depictions also appear in manuscript illustrations and in the embroidered
979:
In neighbouring regions of continental Europe with different soil types, archery equipment are more common finds. Around forty bow staves and various arrows were uncovered at
711:('brightly patterned'). Therefore, Pollington stated that the decoration produced by pattern-welding was important and desired in Anglo-Saxon society. Many blades also had a
1870:
1008:
Norman. Pollington theorized that Anglo-Saxons primarily used the bow to hunt, and Underwood believes that most men would have known how to use it for this purpose.
1075:("linden-wood"). Anglo-Saxon shields comprised a circular piece of wood constructed from planks which had been glued together; at the center of the shield, an iron
242:
350:
406:, which were spoken across much of Northwestern Europe, tribal groups often had names that appear to be based upon the names of weapons; for instance, the
924:
described the use of such throwing axes by the Franks, noting that they would be hurled at the enemy prior to engaging in hand-to-hand combat. In his
178:
3692:
599:
cast a spear into his former pagan temple so as to defile it. In Anglo-Saxon England, the male side of one's family was known as "the spear side".
1016:
There is little evidence for the use of slings as weaponryâthey were normally depicted as hunting tools. In Old English, the sling was known as a
206:
402:
poem uses at least six different words for a spear, suggesting that these terms actually had slightly varying meanings. In Old English and other
3643:
3615:
3513:
3448:
3420:
3401:
3342:
920:-shaped edge. However, axes have been discovered that do not clearly fit into either category. Writing in the sixth century CE, Roman author
3702:
330:" or a reflection of the fact that battles were being increasingly fought at fords, which is confirmed by contemporary sources such as the
557:
When used in hand-to-hand combat, a spear could be held either under-arm or over-armâthe former method is depicted on the eighth-century
1088:
describes shields as being "bright" and "yellow." These pieces of evidence suggest that some Anglo-Saxon shields may have been painted.
211:
127:
786:
purposesâlater Icelandic sagas reference swords with "healing stones" attached, and these stones may be the same as Anglo-Saxon beads.
730:
had an inscription saying that "Sigimer Made This Sword." Textual sources indicate that swords were sometimes given names, such as the
263:, used for piercing and throwing, were the most common weapon. Other commonplace weapons included the sword, axe, and knifeâhowever,
3682:
3532:
3494:
841:
are common in fifth-century Frankish graves, and evidently it was not until later that they gained popularity in England. Thus, the
235:
168:
65:
580:, mutually protecting one another with their shields while pointing their spears at the enemy. Such formations were also known as
315:
in the early Anglo-Saxon period, a great deal of archaeological evidence exists for Anglo-Saxon weaponry. According to historian
1091:
848:
The knife was primarily used for domestic purposes, although it could be used in battleâsome warriors used a mid to large-sized
659:, and a grip by which the sword was held. Pommels could be elaborately decorated with a variety of styles. Examples include the
607:
1003:
Although they are rarely found in graves, bows appear more frequently in Anglo-Saxon art and literature. On the eighth-century
256:
132:
75:
429:
Literary evidence from later Anglo-Saxon England indicates that only free men were permitted to bear arms. The law codes of
287:
286:, apparently having strong connections to gender and social status. Weapons were commonly included as grave goods in the
3687:
3560:
1216:
it. Finally, the rings were joined together and closed using welding and riveting. Following construction, the coat was
228:
70:
932:(also writing in the sixth century) described the throwing of an axe at the enemy. It is from the Franks that the term
1334:
374:
1220:
by being packed in charcoal and subsequently reheated, so that some carbon could transfer to the metal's outer face.
398:, the primary language of Anglo-Saxon England, multiple words were often used to denote the same type of weapon. The
3697:
3677:
868:, Kent, inscribed with "â© BIORHTELM ME ĂORTE" ("Biorhtelm made me") and "â© SGEBEREHT ME AH" ("Sgebereht owns me")
3672:
117:
1410:
1240:
issued an edict in 1008 which required that warriors in active service possess a helmet. In that same year,
1209:
1406:
1213:
1004:
96:
1241:
1030:
892:
675:
332:
860:
774:
was attached by a small strap to the neck of some scabbards. There are examples of similar beads from
695:. Such patterns are often referenced in Anglo-Saxon literatureâthey are described using terms such as
3389:
1301:
380:
298:
216:
163:
147:
438:
their weapons and lavished much attention on them, in their appearance and in their effectiveness."
3555:. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology. pp. 63â70.
1325:
1305:
1290:
1140:
939:
692:
183:
1287:, Suffolkâthis suggests that these helmets may have been more common than the evidence indicates.
1107:(linden-wood), but few actual examples have been found by archaeologists. Evidence indicates that
3482:
3377:
3369:
1394:
1256:
960:
825:
687:
as thin rods and then welded together. Additionally, some of these blades were constructed using
403:
323:
3551:
Bone, Peter (1989). "Development of Anglo-Saxon Swords from the Fifth to the Eleventh Century".
3639:
3611:
3528:
3509:
3490:
3444:
3439:
Hawkes, Sonia Chadwick (1989). "Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England: An Introduction".
3416:
3397:
3338:
1345:
1295:
1263:
1160:
834:
719:
320:
142:
137:
101:
1727:
1725:
872:
Six main types of Anglo-Saxon knife have been identified, based on blade shapes. Anglo-Saxon
3638:. Stuart Brookes, Sue Harrington, and Andrew Reynolds (eds.). Archaeopress. pp. 40â48.
3576:
3470:
3361:
1338:
929:
595:
Spears may have also had symbolic associations. In an account by Bede, the Christian priest
484:(' wood for harming'). When used as a throwing-spear or javelin, it was typically called a
48:
1280:
1165:
983:
in Denmark, dating to the third or fourth century CE. Similar equipment was discovered at
956:
712:
688:
388:
264:
173:
122:
1143:
have been separated into two main categories, based on the method of manufacturing. The
778:
Germanic regions of continental Europe, and it is likely that they were adopted from the
1099:; dating to the 3rd century CE, they are similar to the shields used by the Anglo-Saxons
823:, although this term is not found in any medieval literature save for Gregory of Tours'
3634:
Reynolds, Andrew; Semple, Sarah (2011). "Anglo-Saxon Non-Funerary Weapon Depositions".
3458:
1330:
1321:
1317:
1251:
1237:
1217:
1096:
984:
660:
434:
407:
268:
3666:
3636:
Studies in Early Anglo-Saxon Art and Archaeology: Papers in Honour of Martin G. Welch
3381:
969:
865:
558:
430:
327:
326:
proposed that this was either a return to the prehistoric practice of "deposition in
276:
3443:. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology.
3415:. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology.
17:
1398:
1390:
1386:
1353:
1309:
997:
670:
664:
648:
612:
571:
451:
283:
56:
38:
3567:: Analysis of the Nominal Compounds and an Evaluation of the Poet's Use of Them".
1271:
1382:
1173:
1076:
1035:
951:
577:
395:
316:
312:
91:
797:
The weight of these swords, along with descriptions of them in literature like
3580:
1348:, from the middle to late eighth century, was found in a Viking settlement in
1313:
1284:
1189:
980:
959:'s depiction of Norman cavalry charging an Anglo-Saxon shield wall during the
754:
protected by a metal binding at their neck (known as a frog or locket) and a
2904:
2902:
1276:
1204:
mailcoat would have first required the production of a thin metal wire, via
921:
912:
771:
562:
551:
271:, were not frequently used by the Anglo-Saxons. For defensive purposes, the
2095:
2093:
2048:
2046:
3592:. Donald Scragg (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 208â219.
1144:
1128:
988:
775:
742:
731:
683:
1081:
3373:
1374:
1357:
1205:
1193:
1169:
1116:
1043:
1039:
790:
767:
368:
292:
987:
in Germany. From such continental evidence, it has been asserted that
1405:
England also influenced continental civilizations. For instance, the
1267:
1200:, Denmark, which has been rebuilt by archaeologist Marjin Wijnhoven.
1197:
1112:
783:
723:
419:
363:
355:
272:
3474:
3461:(1948). "A Sword of the Nydam Type from Ely Fields Farm, near Ely".
3365:
647:. Anglo-Saxon swords comprised two-edged straight, flat blades. The
3333:
Brooks, N. P. (1999). "Arms and Armour". In Michael Lapidge (ed.).
678:; the hilt decoration is typical of ninth-century English metalwork
1378:
1370:
1289:
1250:
1159:
1124:
1120:
1108:
1104:
1090:
950:
859:
763:
759:
755:
669:
606:
596:
508:
498:
450:
359:
260:
550:
poem describes the use of javelin spears in a fight between Earl
3608:
The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature
1871:"Beauty of hoard is revealed as rare Viking treasures displayed"
1349:
811:
779:
727:
656:
652:
566:
345:
188:
3599:
Sheaths and Scabbards in Anglo-Saxon England, AD 400–1000
3394:
The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, Volume 2: Arms, Armour and Regalia
2424:
2422:
1132:
455:
An "ĂŠsc wiga," which stands for 'ash-spear warrior' (from the
275:
was the most common item used by warriors, although sometimes
3007:
3005:
3003:
2935:
2933:
3601:. British Archaeological Reports, British Series 301. Oxbow.
3296:
3294:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3212:
3210:
3208:
2704:
2702:
2644:
2642:
2494:
2492:
2348:
2346:
2262:
2260:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1636:
1634:
3489:(second ed.). Hockwold-cum-Wilton: Anglo-Saxon Books.
2974:
2972:
1577:
1575:
1550:
1548:
1103:
Old English poetry always states that shields were made of
782:
during the fifth century. The beads may have been used for
2889:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2813:
2811:
2798:
2796:
2751:
2749:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2439:
2437:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2303:
1921:
1919:
1894:
1892:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1793:
1791:
1778:
1776:
1651:
1649:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1592:
1590:
569:
warrior holding a spear in this manner, and the Icelandic
1684:
1682:
1680:
1511:
1509:
472:, although some texts contain more poetic names, such as
3432:
Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450–900
833:
was used to assassinate the sixth-century Frankish king
1136:
were between 6â8 mm (0.24â0.31 in) in width.
414:(meaning "barbed" or "hook"), the Franks from the word
1484:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1466:
623:, although other terms used for such weapons included
340:
the wider array of weapons used in Anglo-Saxon life.
789:
The sword and scabbard were suspended from either a
410:
may have taken their name from the Old English term
530:: "Henceforth spear shall be, on many cold morning,
3487:The English Warrior: From Earliest Times till 1066
3335:The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England
27:Types and usage of weaponry in Anglo-Saxon England
3575:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 79â141.
3352:Brown, Katherine (1989). "The Morgan Scramasax".
655:, which consisted of an upper and lower guard, a
3463:Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society
3337:. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell. pp. 45â47.
1304:have been found such as the mid-seventh century
255:Many different weapons were created and used in
1180:In Old English, mail armour was referred to as
515:
722:inscriptionsâa sixth-century example found at
3655:The Spearheads of the Anglo-Saxon Settlements
3135:
3123:
236:
8:
1119:wood were the most common types; shields of
351:Ecclesiastical History of the English People
1308:, discovered in 1848 by Thomas Bateman at
829:. In this writing, Gregory mentions that a
3625:Dickinson, Tanya; HĂ€rke, Heinrich (1993).
3553:Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England
3441:Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England
3413:Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England
3316:
3268:
3248:
3232:
3199:
3183:
3155:
3111:
3083:
3067:
3035:
3011:
2994:
2939:
2924:
2912:
2874:
2833:
2787:
2771:
2740:
2724:
2708:
2664:
2648:
2633:
2617:
2589:
2514:
2498:
2352:
2294:
2282:
2266:
2251:
2235:
2187:
2175:
2135:
2119:
2103:
2084:
2068:
2056:
2025:
2009:
1993:
1969:
1953:
1910:
1857:
1821:
1755:
1735:
1716:
1671:
1640:
1625:
1566:
1554:
1500:
1255:The Benty Grange Helmet on display in the
344:describe weapons or their use in warfare.
259:between the fifth and eleventh centuries.
243:
229:
29:
3588:Brooks, N. (1991). "Weapons and Armour".
3312:
3300:
3285:
3264:
3244:
3228:
3216:
3195:
3179:
3167:
3151:
3107:
3095:
3063:
3051:
3023:
2990:
2978:
2963:
2951:
2908:
2893:
2862:
2845:
2829:
2817:
2802:
2783:
2767:
2755:
2736:
2720:
2693:
2681:
2660:
2629:
2613:
2601:
2585:
2573:
2561:
2538:
2526:
2510:
2479:
2443:
2428:
2413:
2396:
2380:
2368:
2313:
2278:
2247:
2223:
2171:
2159:
2147:
2131:
2115:
2099:
2080:
2052:
2037:
2021:
2005:
1965:
1949:
1925:
1898:
1838:
1809:
1797:
1782:
1767:
1751:
1731:
1712:
1700:
1667:
1655:
1613:
1596:
1581:
1539:
1527:
1515:
1341:, although this boar was made with iron.
903:In Old English, axes were referred to as
845:is primarily associated with the Franks.
3657:. Leeds: Royal Archaeological Institute.
1262:The earliest known example was found at
809:In Old English, the term for knife was
282:Weapons also had symbolic value for the
3396:. London: British Museum Publications.
2483:
2467:
2455:
1739:
1688:
1457:
1426:
198:
155:
109:
83:
55:
37:
3260:
3147:
3079:
3047:
2392:
2364:
2337:
2211:
1981:
1937:
1488:
1445:
1433:
418:("spear," or possibly "axe"), and the
2199:
7:
2325:
1232:The Old English word for helmet was
3411:Gale, David A. (1989). "The Seax".
682:Rather than being able to melt the
33:This article is part of the series:
532:grasped in fist, lifted in hand."
25:
3629:. London: Society of Antiquaries.
3610:. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press.
3434:. London and New York: Routledge.
522:monig morgenceald mindum bewunden
506:developed from the Roman army's
47:
3693:Conflict in Anglo-Saxon England
3606:Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1994) .
3525:Anglo-Saxon Weapons and Warfare
1393:, was discovered in a grave at
1095:Two round, wooden shields from
674:The Abingdon Sword, found near
1050:Armour and defensive equipment
749:('sheath'), although the term
651:of the blade was covered by a
1:
3590:The Battle of Maldon, AD 991
3506:Weapons and Warfare, Rev. Ed
3703:Warfare in medieval England
3523:Underwood, Richard (1999).
3354:Metropolitan Museum Journal
1369:century, which included an
663:or the pommel found in the
3719:
928:, the Frankish chronicler
528:Modern English translation
520:: "ForĂ°on sceall gar wesan
3627:Early Anglo-Saxon Shields
3581:10.1017/s0263675100003045
1176:soldiers in coats of mail
852:instead of a sword. This
758:at the bottom. A bead of
288:early Anglo-Saxon burials
3683:Medieval European swords
3597:Cameron, Esther (2000).
2727:, pp. 144, 148â149.
910:Several examples of the
366:. Some poems, including
1411:Kingdom of the Lombards
1044:draw Biblical parallels
279:and helmets were used.
3653:Swanton, M.J. (1973).
1670:, pp. 39, 43â44;
1364:Manufacture of weapons
1298:
1259:
1177:
1100:
964:
869:
864:Broken-back seax from
679:
615:
611:Sword pommel from the
565:in Scotland depicts a
534:
460:
156:Power and organization
3504:Powell, John (2010).
3430:Halsall, Guy (2003).
3390:Bruce-Mitford, Rupert
1293:
1254:
1242:Aethelred the Unready
1163:
1094:
1031:Vita Sancti Wilfrithi
1028:('staff-pouch'). The
1024:, and sometimes as a
954:
926:History of the Franks
893:Sonia Chadwick Hawkes
863:
837:. Early forms of the
826:History of the Franks
676:Abingdon, Oxfordshire
673:
610:
584:('shield-fortress'),
454:
333:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
179:Monarchs and kingdoms
3563:(1979). "Weapons in
3231:, pp. 103â104;
1302:Boar crested helmets
799:The Battle of Maldon
741:In Old English, the
588:("board-wall"), and
548:The Battle of Maldon
518:Old English original
381:The Battle of Maldon
375:Battle of Brunanburh
299:The Battle of Maldon
18:Anglo-Saxon weaponry
3688:Anglo-Saxon society
3569:Anglo-Saxon England
3483:Pollington, Stephen
3251:, pp. 163â164.
3186:, pp. 159â161.
3138:, pp. 146â150.
3126:, pp. 152â163.
2723:, pp. 77, 79;
2636:, pp. 173â174.
2470:, pp. 165â166.
2285:, pp. 167â168.
2122:, pp. 116â117.
1956:, pp. 118â119.
1742:, pp. 164â165.
1306:Benty Grange helmet
1139:Anglo-Saxon shield
1034:(an eighth-century
707:('grey mark'), and
703:('winding marks'),
699:('weaving marks'),
693:herringbone pattern
447:Spears and javelins
257:Anglo-Saxon England
41:society and culture
3527:. Stroud: Tempus.
3136:Bruce-Mitford 1978
3124:Bruce-Mitford 1978
2541:, pp. 32, 34.
2513:, pp. 26â28;
2431:, pp. 35, 37.
1877:. 12 December 2014
1395:Tattershall Thorpe
1299:
1260:
1257:Weston Park Museum
1178:
1101:
965:
961:Battle of Hastings
870:
718:A few swords bore
680:
616:
461:
404:Germanic languages
324:Stephen Pollington
3645:978-1-4073-0751-0
3617:978-0-85115-716-0
3515:978-1-58765-594-4
3450:978-0-631-15565-2
3422:978-0-631-15565-2
3403:978-0-7141-1331-9
3344:978-0-631-15565-2
3098:, pp. 94â95.
2966:, pp. 93â94.
2226:, pp. 68â69.
1812:, pp. 46â47.
1530:, pp. 13â15.
1448:, pp. 45â46.
1346:Coppergate helmet
1296:Coppergate Helmet
321:popular historian
253:
252:
16:(Redirected from
3710:
3698:Medieval weapons
3678:European weapons
3658:
3649:
3630:
3621:
3602:
3593:
3584:
3556:
3538:
3519:
3500:
3478:
3454:
3435:
3426:
3407:
3385:
3348:
3320:
3310:
3304:
3298:
3289:
3283:
3272:
3258:
3252:
3242:
3236:
3226:
3220:
3214:
3203:
3193:
3187:
3177:
3171:
3165:
3159:
3145:
3139:
3133:
3127:
3121:
3115:
3105:
3099:
3093:
3087:
3077:
3071:
3061:
3055:
3045:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3021:
3015:
3009:
2998:
2988:
2982:
2976:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2928:
2922:
2916:
2906:
2897:
2891:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2860:
2849:
2843:
2837:
2827:
2821:
2815:
2806:
2800:
2791:
2781:
2775:
2765:
2759:
2753:
2744:
2734:
2728:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2668:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2637:
2627:
2621:
2611:
2605:
2599:
2593:
2583:
2577:
2571:
2565:
2559:
2542:
2536:
2530:
2524:
2518:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2487:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2432:
2426:
2417:
2411:
2400:
2390:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2298:
2292:
2286:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2255:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2169:
2163:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2129:
2123:
2113:
2107:
2097:
2088:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2050:
2041:
2035:
2029:
2019:
2013:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1963:
1957:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1914:
1908:
1902:
1896:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1842:
1836:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1786:
1780:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1749:
1743:
1729:
1720:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1675:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1644:
1638:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1600:
1594:
1585:
1579:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1339:Northamptonshire
930:Gregory of Tours
542:
524:hĂŠfan on handa."
245:
238:
231:
207:Christianisation
110:Material culture
51:
30:
21:
3718:
3717:
3713:
3712:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3707:
3673:European swords
3663:
3662:
3661:
3652:
3646:
3633:
3624:
3618:
3605:
3596:
3587:
3561:Brady, Caroline
3559:
3550:
3546:
3544:Further reading
3541:
3535:
3522:
3516:
3508:. Salem Press.
3503:
3497:
3481:
3475:10.5284/1034398
3459:Maryon, Herbert
3457:
3451:
3438:
3429:
3423:
3410:
3404:
3388:
3366:10.2307/1512870
3351:
3345:
3332:
3328:
3323:
3317:Pollington 2001
3315:, p. 145;
3311:
3307:
3299:
3292:
3284:
3275:
3269:Pollington 2001
3267:, p. 103;
3259:
3255:
3249:Pollington 2001
3247:, p. 102;
3243:
3239:
3233:Pollington 2001
3227:
3223:
3215:
3206:
3200:Pollington 2001
3198:, p. 100;
3194:
3190:
3184:Pollington 2001
3182:, p. 100;
3178:
3174:
3166:
3162:
3156:Pollington 2001
3146:
3142:
3134:
3130:
3122:
3118:
3112:Pollington 2001
3106:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3084:Pollington 2001
3078:
3074:
3068:Pollington 2001
3062:
3058:
3046:
3042:
3036:Pollington 2001
3034:
3030:
3022:
3018:
3012:Pollington 2001
3010:
3001:
2995:Pollington 2001
2989:
2985:
2977:
2970:
2962:
2958:
2950:
2946:
2940:Pollington 2001
2938:
2931:
2925:Pollington 2001
2923:
2919:
2913:Pollington 2001
2907:
2900:
2892:
2881:
2875:Pollington 2001
2873:
2869:
2861:
2852:
2844:
2840:
2834:Pollington 2001
2828:
2824:
2816:
2809:
2801:
2794:
2788:Pollington 2001
2782:
2778:
2772:Pollington 2001
2766:
2762:
2754:
2747:
2741:Pollington 2001
2735:
2731:
2725:Pollington 2001
2719:
2715:
2709:Pollington 2001
2707:
2700:
2692:
2688:
2680:
2671:
2665:Pollington 2001
2659:
2655:
2649:Pollington 2001
2647:
2640:
2634:Pollington 2001
2628:
2624:
2618:Pollington 2001
2612:
2608:
2600:
2596:
2590:Pollington 2001
2584:
2580:
2572:
2568:
2560:
2545:
2537:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2515:Pollington 2001
2509:
2505:
2499:Pollington 2001
2497:
2490:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2462:
2454:
2450:
2442:
2435:
2427:
2420:
2412:
2403:
2391:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2363:
2359:
2353:Pollington 2001
2351:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2312:
2301:
2295:Pollington 2001
2293:
2289:
2283:Pollington 2001
2277:
2273:
2267:Pollington 2001
2265:
2258:
2252:Pollington 2001
2246:
2242:
2236:Pollington 2001
2234:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2194:
2188:Pollington 2001
2186:
2182:
2176:Pollington 2001
2170:
2166:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2142:
2136:Pollington 2001
2130:
2126:
2120:Pollington 2001
2114:
2110:
2104:Pollington 2001
2098:
2091:
2085:Pollington 2001
2079:
2075:
2069:Pollington 2001
2067:
2063:
2057:Pollington 2001
2051:
2044:
2036:
2032:
2026:Pollington 2001
2020:
2016:
2010:Pollington 2001
2004:
2000:
1994:Pollington 2001
1992:
1988:
1980:
1976:
1970:Pollington 2001
1964:
1960:
1954:Pollington 2001
1948:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1917:
1911:Pollington 2001
1909:
1905:
1897:
1890:
1880:
1878:
1869:
1868:
1864:
1858:Pollington 2001
1856:
1845:
1837:
1828:
1822:Pollington 2001
1820:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1796:
1789:
1781:
1774:
1766:
1762:
1756:Pollington 2001
1750:
1746:
1738:, p. 130;
1736:Pollington 2001
1730:
1723:
1717:Pollington 2001
1711:
1707:
1699:
1695:
1687:
1678:
1672:Pollington 2001
1666:
1662:
1654:
1647:
1641:Pollington 2001
1639:
1632:
1626:Pollington 2001
1624:
1620:
1612:
1603:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1573:
1567:Pollington 2001
1565:
1561:
1555:Pollington 2001
1553:
1546:
1538:
1534:
1526:
1522:
1514:
1507:
1501:Pollington 2001
1499:
1495:
1487:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1366:
1333:, unearthed in
1281:Nottinghamshire
1230:
1166:Bayeux Tapestry
1164:Scene from the
1158:
1057:
1052:
1014:
957:Bayeux Tapestry
949:
947:Bows and arrows
901:
807:
745:was known as a
689:pattern welding
605:
592:("war-hedge").
544:
536:
531:
526:
525:
523:
521:
480:('point'), and
476:(' ash wood'),
449:
444:
389:Bayeux Tapestry
308:
265:bows and arrows
249:
40:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3716:
3714:
3706:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3665:
3664:
3660:
3659:
3650:
3644:
3631:
3622:
3616:
3603:
3594:
3585:
3557:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3539:
3533:
3520:
3514:
3501:
3495:
3479:
3455:
3449:
3436:
3427:
3421:
3408:
3402:
3386:
3349:
3343:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3319:, p. 114.
3313:Underwood 1999
3305:
3303:, p. 145.
3301:Underwood 1999
3290:
3288:, p. 115.
3286:Underwood 1999
3273:
3271:, p. 164.
3265:Underwood 1999
3263:, p. 46;
3253:
3245:Underwood 1999
3237:
3235:, p. 162.
3229:Underwood 1999
3221:
3219:, p. 102.
3217:Underwood 1999
3204:
3202:, p. 160.
3196:Underwood 1999
3188:
3180:Underwood 1999
3172:
3168:Underwood 1999
3160:
3158:, p. 156.
3154:, p. 98;
3152:Underwood 1999
3150:, p. 46;
3140:
3128:
3116:
3114:, p. 156.
3110:, p. 95;
3108:Underwood 1999
3100:
3096:Underwood 1999
3088:
3086:, p. 155.
3082:, p. 46;
3072:
3070:, p. 155.
3066:, p. 94;
3064:Underwood 1999
3056:
3054:, p. 105.
3052:Underwood 1999
3050:, p. 46;
3040:
3038:, p. 103.
3028:
3026:, p. 105.
3024:Underwood 1999
3016:
3014:, p. 155.
2999:
2997:, p. 154.
2993:, p. 94;
2991:Underwood 1999
2983:
2979:Underwood 1999
2968:
2964:Underwood 1999
2956:
2952:Underwood 1999
2944:
2942:, p. 154.
2929:
2927:, p. 153.
2917:
2915:, p. 152.
2911:, p. 91;
2909:Underwood 1999
2898:
2894:Underwood 1999
2879:
2877:, p. 151.
2867:
2863:Underwood 1999
2850:
2846:Underwood 1999
2838:
2836:, p. 146.
2832:, p. 77;
2830:Underwood 1999
2822:
2818:Underwood 1999
2807:
2803:Underwood 1999
2792:
2790:, p. 147.
2786:, p. 79;
2784:Underwood 1999
2776:
2774:, p. 148.
2770:, p. 77;
2768:Underwood 1999
2760:
2756:Underwood 1999
2745:
2743:, p. 148.
2739:, p. 79;
2737:Underwood 1999
2729:
2721:Underwood 1999
2713:
2711:, p. 141.
2698:
2694:Underwood 1999
2686:
2682:Underwood 1999
2669:
2667:, p. 175.
2663:, p. 37;
2661:Underwood 1999
2653:
2651:, p. 175.
2638:
2632:, p. 32;
2630:Underwood 1999
2622:
2620:, p. 173.
2616:, p. 32;
2614:Underwood 1999
2606:
2602:Underwood 1999
2594:
2592:, p. 171.
2588:, p. 29;
2586:Underwood 1999
2578:
2574:Underwood 1999
2566:
2562:Underwood 1999
2543:
2539:Underwood 1999
2531:
2527:Underwood 1999
2519:
2517:, p. 170.
2511:Underwood 1999
2503:
2501:, p. 170.
2488:
2486:, p. 166.
2482:, p. 26;
2480:Underwood 1999
2472:
2460:
2458:, p. 165.
2448:
2444:Underwood 1999
2433:
2429:Underwood 1999
2418:
2414:Underwood 1999
2401:
2397:Underwood 1999
2395:, p. 46;
2385:
2381:Underwood 1999
2373:
2369:Underwood 1999
2367:, p. 46;
2357:
2355:, p. 138.
2342:
2330:
2318:
2314:Underwood 1999
2299:
2297:, p. 168.
2287:
2281:, p. 70;
2279:Underwood 1999
2271:
2269:, p. 167.
2256:
2254:, p. 167.
2250:, p. 70;
2248:Underwood 1999
2240:
2238:, p. 166.
2228:
2224:Underwood 1999
2216:
2204:
2192:
2190:, p. 165.
2180:
2178:, p. 165.
2174:, p. 68;
2172:Underwood 1999
2164:
2160:Underwood 1999
2152:
2148:Underwood 1999
2140:
2138:, p. 123.
2134:, p. 62;
2132:Underwood 1999
2124:
2118:, p. 61;
2116:Underwood 1999
2108:
2106:, p. 117.
2102:, p. 59;
2100:Underwood 1999
2089:
2087:, p. 117.
2083:, p. 58;
2081:Underwood 1999
2073:
2071:, p. 118.
2061:
2059:, p. 114.
2055:, p. 56;
2053:Underwood 1999
2042:
2038:Underwood 1999
2030:
2028:, p. 122.
2024:, p. 54;
2022:Underwood 1999
2014:
2012:, p. 110.
2008:, p. 48;
2006:Underwood 1999
1998:
1996:, p. 119.
1986:
1974:
1972:, p. 119.
1968:, p. 48;
1966:Underwood 1999
1958:
1952:, p. 48;
1950:Underwood 1999
1942:
1930:
1926:Underwood 1999
1915:
1913:, p. 121.
1903:
1899:Underwood 1999
1888:
1875:Yorkshire Post
1862:
1860:, p. 110.
1843:
1839:Underwood 1999
1826:
1824:, p. 137.
1814:
1810:Underwood 1999
1802:
1798:Underwood 1999
1787:
1783:Underwood 1999
1772:
1768:Underwood 1999
1760:
1758:, p. 130.
1754:, p. 24;
1752:Underwood 1999
1744:
1734:, p. 24;
1732:Underwood 1999
1721:
1719:, p. 129.
1715:, p. 44;
1713:Underwood 1999
1705:
1701:Underwood 1999
1693:
1691:, p. 164.
1676:
1674:, p. 131.
1668:Underwood 1999
1660:
1656:Underwood 1999
1645:
1643:, p. 129.
1630:
1628:, p. 128.
1618:
1614:Underwood 1999
1601:
1597:Underwood 1999
1586:
1584:, p. 114.
1582:Underwood 1999
1571:
1569:, p. 108.
1559:
1557:, p. 104.
1544:
1540:Underwood 1999
1532:
1528:Underwood 1999
1520:
1516:Underwood 1999
1505:
1503:, p. 111.
1493:
1462:
1460:, p. 163.
1450:
1438:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1365:
1362:
1331:Pioneer Helmet
1322:Cambridgeshire
1318:Guilden Morden
1238:Cnut the Great
1229:
1226:
1157:
1154:
1097:Thorsberg moor
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1013:
1010:
985:Thorsberg moor
948:
945:
900:
897:
806:
803:
661:Abingdon Sword
604:
601:
514:
448:
445:
443:
440:
435:King of Wessex
307:
304:
251:
250:
248:
247:
240:
233:
225:
222:
221:
220:
219:
214:
209:
201:
200:
196:
195:
194:
193:
192:
191:
181:
176:
171:
166:
158:
157:
153:
152:
151:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
112:
111:
107:
106:
105:
104:
99:
94:
86:
85:
81:
80:
79:
78:
73:
68:
60:
59:
53:
52:
44:
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3715:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3656:
3651:
3647:
3641:
3637:
3632:
3628:
3623:
3619:
3613:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3549:
3548:
3543:
3536:
3534:0-7524-1412-7
3530:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3507:
3502:
3498:
3496:1-898281-42-4
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3442:
3437:
3433:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3340:
3336:
3331:
3330:
3325:
3318:
3314:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3241:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3225:
3222:
3218:
3213:
3211:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3176:
3173:
3170:, p. 98.
3169:
3164:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3029:
3025:
3020:
3017:
3013:
3008:
3006:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2984:
2981:, p. 94.
2980:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2957:
2954:, p. 93.
2953:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2896:, p. 91.
2895:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2871:
2868:
2865:, p. 89.
2864:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2848:, p. 84.
2847:
2842:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2823:
2820:, p. 82.
2819:
2814:
2812:
2808:
2805:, p. 81.
2804:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2764:
2761:
2758:, p. 79.
2757:
2752:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2733:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2696:, p. 77.
2695:
2690:
2687:
2684:, p. 38.
2683:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2610:
2607:
2604:, p. 32.
2603:
2598:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2579:
2576:, p. 31.
2575:
2570:
2567:
2564:, p. 29.
2563:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2532:
2529:, p. 28.
2528:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2461:
2457:
2452:
2449:
2446:, p. 37.
2445:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2416:, p. 35.
2415:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2399:, p. 35.
2398:
2394:
2389:
2386:
2383:, p. 73.
2382:
2377:
2374:
2371:, p. 73.
2370:
2366:
2361:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2319:
2316:, p. 71.
2315:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2205:
2201:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2165:
2162:, p. 68.
2161:
2156:
2153:
2150:, p. 63.
2149:
2144:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2047:
2043:
2040:, p. 54.
2039:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1987:
1984:, p. 74.
1983:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1931:
1928:, p. 48.
1927:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1904:
1901:, p. 47.
1900:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1876:
1872:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1841:, p. 26.
1840:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1803:
1800:, p. 46.
1799:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1785:, p. 25.
1784:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1770:, p. 24.
1769:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1706:
1703:, p. 43.
1702:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1661:
1658:, p. 44.
1657:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1619:
1616:, p. 39.
1615:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1599:, p. 23.
1598:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1542:, p. 15.
1541:
1536:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1521:
1518:, p. 13.
1517:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1494:
1491:, p. 46.
1490:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1439:
1436:, p. 45.
1435:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1219:
1218:case hardened
1215:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1001:
999:
993:
990:
986:
982:
977:
975:
971:
970:Isle of Wight
962:
958:
953:
946:
944:
942:
941:
940:Ripuarian Law
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
914:
908:
906:
898:
896:
894:
889:
883:
880:
875:
867:
866:Sittingbourne
862:
858:
855:
851:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
827:
822:
818:
814:
813:
804:
802:
800:
795:
792:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
716:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
685:
677:
672:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
614:
609:
602:
600:
598:
593:
591:
587:
583:
579:
574:
573:
568:
564:
560:
559:Franks Casket
555:
553:
549:
543:
540:
533:
529:
519:
513:
511:
510:
505:
501:
500:
493:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
458:
453:
446:
441:
439:
436:
432:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
385:
383:
382:
377:
376:
371:
370:
365:
361:
357:
353:
352:
347:
341:
337:
335:
334:
329:
328:sacred waters
325:
322:
318:
314:
305:
303:
301:
300:
295:
294:
289:
285:
280:
278:
274:
270:
267:, as well as
266:
262:
258:
246:
241:
239:
234:
232:
227:
226:
224:
223:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
204:
203:
202:
197:
190:
187:
186:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
161:
160:
159:
154:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
115:
114:
113:
108:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
89:
88:
87:
82:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
63:
62:
61:
58:
54:
50:
46:
45:
42:
36:
32:
31:
19:
3654:
3635:
3626:
3607:
3598:
3589:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3552:
3524:
3505:
3486:
3466:
3462:
3440:
3431:
3412:
3393:
3357:
3353:
3334:
3326:Bibliography
3308:
3256:
3240:
3224:
3191:
3175:
3163:
3143:
3131:
3119:
3103:
3091:
3075:
3059:
3043:
3031:
3019:
2986:
2959:
2947:
2920:
2870:
2841:
2825:
2779:
2763:
2732:
2716:
2689:
2656:
2625:
2609:
2597:
2581:
2569:
2534:
2522:
2506:
2484:Halsall 2003
2475:
2468:Halsall 2003
2463:
2456:Halsall 2003
2451:
2388:
2376:
2360:
2333:
2321:
2290:
2274:
2243:
2231:
2219:
2207:
2195:
2183:
2167:
2155:
2143:
2127:
2111:
2076:
2064:
2033:
2017:
2001:
1989:
1977:
1961:
1945:
1933:
1906:
1879:. Retrieved
1874:
1865:
1817:
1805:
1763:
1747:
1740:Halsall 2003
1708:
1696:
1689:Halsall 2003
1663:
1621:
1562:
1535:
1523:
1496:
1458:Halsall 2003
1453:
1441:
1429:
1403:
1399:Lincolnshire
1367:
1343:
1310:Benty Grange
1300:
1261:
1245:
1233:
1231:
1222:
1202:
1185:
1181:
1179:
1150:
1138:
1102:
1085:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1058:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1015:
1005:Northumbrian
1002:
994:
978:
973:
966:
938:
933:
925:
917:
911:
909:
904:
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887:
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746:
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681:
665:Bedale Hoard
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
617:
613:Bedale Hoard
594:
589:
585:
581:
572:Grettis saga
570:
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547:
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517:
516:
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442:Weapon types
428:
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386:
379:
373:
367:
349:
342:
338:
331:
309:
297:
291:
284:Anglo-Saxons
281:
254:
212:Christianity
118:Architecture
3261:Brooks 1999
3148:Brooks 1999
3080:Brooks 1999
3048:Brooks 1999
2393:Brooks 1999
2365:Brooks 1999
2338:Hawkes 1989
2212:Powell 2010
1982:Maryon 1948
1938:Maryon 1948
1881:15 December
1489:Brooks 1999
1446:Brooks 1999
1434:Brooks 1999
1326:bronze boar
1174:Anglo-Saxon
1036:hagiography
734:sword from
578:shield wall
541:, line 3021
426:("knife").
396:Old English
362:, or later
317:Guy Halsall
313:grave goods
39:Anglo-Saxon
3667:Categories
2200:Brown 1989
1417:References
1407:ring-sword
1324:, another
1314:Derbyshire
1285:Icklingham
1264:Sutton Hoo
1190:Sutton Hoo
1026:stĂŠfliĂ°ere
981:Nydam Mose
772:meerschaum
512:javelins.
488:('dart').
169:Government
97:Literature
66:Settlement
3469:: 73â76.
3382:193029095
2326:Gale 1989
1422:Footnotes
1335:Wollaston
1283:, and in
1277:Rempstone
1272:ValsgÀrde
1145:carinated
1038:of Saint
989:long bows
934:francisca
922:Procopius
913:francisca
701:wundenmĂŠl
697:brogenmĂŠl
582:scyldburh
563:Aberlemno
552:Byrhtnoth
3485:(2001).
3392:(1978).
3360:: 71â3.
1168:showing
963:in 1066.
854:scramsax
850:scramsax
835:Sigibert
831:scramsax
821:scramsax
784:amuletic
776:Iron Age
743:scabbard
732:Hrunting
684:iron ore
586:bordweal
482:ĂŸrecwudu
306:Evidence
217:Paganism
199:Religion
189:Military
164:Charters
148:Weaponry
92:Language
84:Language
3565:Beowulf
3374:1512870
1391:punches
1375:hammers
1358:Trinity
1246:Beowulf
1228:Helmets
1210:drawing
1206:swaging
1194:Suffolk
1086:Beowulf
1040:Wilfrid
998:bodkins
791:baldric
768:crystal
736:Beowulf
709:scirmĂŠl
705:grĂŠgmĂŠl
590:wihagan
567:Pictish
539:Beowulf
457:Beowulf
400:Beowulf
369:Beowulf
364:Vikings
293:Beowulf
184:Warfare
76:History
3642:
3614:
3531:
3512:
3493:
3447:
3419:
3400:
3380:
3372:
3341:
1389:, and
1387:shears
1268:Vendel
1214:anneal
1198:Vimose
1186:hlenca
1170:Norman
1141:bosses
1131:, and
1117:poplar
1115:, and
1113:willow
1082:convex
1055:Shield
1022:liĂ°era
1018:liĂ°ere
1012:Slings
888:seaxes
874:seaxes
805:Knives
751:fĂŠtels
724:Gilton
713:fuller
657:pommel
639:, and
621:sweord
603:Swords
504:angons
499:angons
420:Saxons
416:franca
408:Angles
378:, and
356:Franks
273:shield
269:slings
261:Spears
128:Burial
57:People
3378:S2CID
3370:JSTOR
1379:tongs
1371:anvil
1354:nasal
1182:byrne
1125:birch
1121:maple
1109:alder
1071:, or
1069:scyld
819:as a
770:, or
764:amber
760:glass
756:chape
747:scÄaĂŸ
720:runic
625:heoru
597:Coifi
509:pilum
486:daroĂŸ
470:spere
422:from
412:angul
360:Goths
143:Glass
138:Dress
133:Coins
102:Runes
71:Women
3640:ISBN
3612:ISBN
3529:ISBN
3510:ISBN
3491:ISBN
3445:ISBN
3417:ISBN
3398:ISBN
3339:ISBN
1883:2014
1383:file
1381:, a
1350:York
1344:The
1294:The
1270:and
1234:helm
1172:and
1156:Mail
1105:lime
1077:boss
1073:lind
1065:rand
1061:bord
974:boga
955:The
905:ĂŠces
899:Axes
879:seax
843:seax
839:seax
817:seax
812:seax
780:Huns
728:Kent
653:hilt
649:tang
645:mÇŁce
641:mÄce
637:bile
633:bill
629:heru
468:and
424:seax
358:and
346:Bede
296:and
277:mail
3577:doi
3471:doi
3467:XLI
3362:doi
1397:in
1208:or
1192:in
1184:or
1133:oak
1129:ash
1020:or
726:in
643:or
635:or
627:or
478:ord
474:ĂŠsc
466:gÄr
431:Ine
394:In
348:'s
174:Law
123:Art
3669::
3571:.
3465:.
3376:.
3368:.
3358:24
3356:.
3293:^
3276:^
3207:^
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2672:^
2641:^
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2302:^
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2092:^
2045:^
1918:^
1891:^
1873:.
1846:^
1829:^
1790:^
1775:^
1724:^
1679:^
1648:^
1633:^
1604:^
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1465:^
1413:.
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3473::
3453:.
3425:.
3406:.
3384:.
3364::
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2328:.
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1940:.
1885:.
918:S
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433:(
244:e
237:t
230:v
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