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721:, user, service context, and society. There is concern about unethical misuse for "generating arguments on controversial topics with specific stances and deploying them on social platforms". Another issue may concern the design of conclusion-making algorithms, such as e.g. enabling such to conclude that certain key data is needed instead of only making lists of best-fit conclusions or enabling the generation of multiple conclusions from the same data based on different argument-assessments or assessment methods.
127:
such as the
International Workshop on Computational Models of Natural Argument (CMNA) which has run annually since 2001; the International Workshop on Argument in Multi Agent Systems (ArgMAS) annually since 2004; the Workshop on Argument Mining, annually since 2014, and the Conference on Computational Models of Argument (COMMA), biennially since 2006. Since 2010, the field has also had its own journal,
139:, in particular, developed idiosyncratic and ad hoc ways of representing arguments which reflected differing underlying ways of conceiving of argumentative structure. This lack of standardisation also meant that there was no interchange between tools or between research projects, and little re-use of data resources that were often expensive to create. To tackle this problem, the
25:
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is a computer system that aims to provide immediate and customized instruction or feedback to learners, usually without requiring intervention from a human teacher. The intersection of argument technology and intelligent tutoring systems includes computer systems which aim to provide instruction in:
489:
Argument technology can reduce both individual and group biases and facilitate more accurate decisions. Argument-based decision support systems do so by helping users to distinguish between claims and the evidence supporting them, and express their confidence in and evaluate the strength of evidence
126:
With these foundations in place, the area was kick-started by a workshop held in the
Scottish Highlands in 2000, the result of which was a book coauthored by philosophers of argument, rhetoricians, legal scholars and AI researchers. Since then, the area has been supported by various dedicated events
738:
van
Eemeren, Frans H.; Garssen, Bart; Krabbe, Erik C. W.; Snoeck Henkemans, A. Francisca; Verheij, Bart; Wagemans, Jean H. M. (2014), van Eemeren, Frans H.; Garssen, Bart; Krabbe, Erik C. W.; Snoeck Henkemans, A. Francisca (eds.),
134:
One of the challenges that argument technology faced was a lack of standardisation in the representation and underlying conception of argument in machine readable terms. Many different software tools for manual
393:
An argument search engine is a search engine that is given a topic as a user query and returns a list of arguments for and against the topic or about that topic. Such engines could be used to support informed
458:
Debate technology focuses on human-machine interaction and in particular providing systems that support, monitor and engage in debate. One of the most high-profile examples of debating technology is IBM's
656:
concerned with the moral behavior of artificially intelligent beings. As humans argue with respect to morality and moral behavior, argument can be envisioned as a component of machine ethics systems and
230:. Argument assistants can help users compose content, review content from one other, including in dialogical contexts. In addition to Web services, such functionalities can be provided through the
529:
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Ethical considerations of argument technology include privacy, transparency, societal concerns, and diversity in representation. These factors cut across different levels such as technology,
1032:
Slonim, Noam; Bilu, Yonatan; Alzate, Carlos; Bar-Haim, Roy; Bogin, Ben; Bonin, Francesca; Choshen, Leshem; Cohen-Karlik, Edo; Dankin, Lena; Edelstein, Lilach; Ein-Dor, Liat (March 2021).
2006:
Proceedings of the 59th Annual
Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)
416:
The goal of automated argumentative essay scoring systems is to assist students in improving their writing skills by measuring the quality of their argumentative content.
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that focuses on applying computational techniques to the creation, identification, analysis, navigation, evaluation and visualisation of arguments and debates.
1282:"Claims on demand–an initial demonstration of a system for automatic detection and polarity identification of context dependent claims in massive corpora"
442:
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were introduced as a way of providing a calculus of opposition for computing what it is reasonable to believe in the context of conflicting arguments.
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set out to establish a common standard that captured the minimal common features of argumentation which could then be extended in different settings.
1382:
Green, Nancy L. (2013). "Towards automated analysis of student arguments". In Lane, H. Chad; Yacef, Kalina; Mostow, Jack; Pavlik, Philip (eds.).
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Bolton, Eric; Calderwood, Alex; Christensen, Niles; Kafrouni, Jerome; Drori, Iddo (2020). "High quality real-time structured debate generation".
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of competing claims. They have been used to improve predictions of housing market trends, risk analysis, ethical and legal decision making.
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which combines scripted communication with very large-scale processing of news articles to identify and construct arguments on the fly in a
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is the automatic extraction and identification of argumentative structures from natural language text with the aid of computer programs.
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Ashley, Kevin D.; Aleven, Vincent (May 1991). "Toward an intelligent tutoring system for teaching law students to argue with cases".
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1403:
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debate tree schema with an example path through it: all Con-argument boxes and some Pros were emptied to illustrate an example path.
68:
35:
1903:
1565:"Improving decision-making performance through argumentation: An argument-based decision support system to compute with evidence"
298:
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Artificial intelligence in education: 16th international conference, AIED 2013, Memphis, TN, USA, July 9–13, 2013: proceedings
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setting. Debating technology also encompasses tools aimed at providing insight into debates, typically using techniques from
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164:'s nationwide research programme on Robust Argumentation Machines, RATIO, begun in 2019; and UK nationwide deployment of
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50:
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Anastasiou, Lucas; De Liddo, Anna (8 May 2021). "Making Sense of Online
Discussions: Can Automated Reports help?".
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46:
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Mancherjee, Kevin; Sodan, Angela C. (September 2004). "Can computer tools support ethical decision making?".
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Example of an ADA contributing missing information to a debate via crawled Kialo data and selected based
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687:, a proof assistant or interactive theorem prover is a software tool to assist with the development of
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1326:. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications. Vol. 245. IOS Press. pp. 515–516.
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978:
363:
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ArguBlogging is software which allows its users to select portions of hypertext on webpages in their
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Betz, Gregor (2022). "Natural-language multi-agent simulations of argumentative opinion dynamics".
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1958:"Perceptions and reactions to conversational privacy initiated by a conversational user interface"
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Al Khatib, Khalid; Trautner, Lukas; Wachsmuth, Henning; Hou, Yufang; Stein, Benno (August 2021).
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Bex, Floris J.; Grasso, Floriana; Green, Nancy L.; Paglieri, Fabio; Reed, Chris, eds. (2017).
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by human-machine collaboration. This involves some sort of interactive proof editor, or other
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ICAIL '91: Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law
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ICAIL '01: Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law
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2009 Ninth IEEE International
Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, 15–17 July 2009
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Ritter, Steven; Anderson, John R.; Koedinger, Kenneth R.; Corbett, Albert (April 2007).
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344:. One avenue of research and development is the design of online platforms to leverage
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in particular, were leveraged to handle key computational challenges, such as modeling
131:, which was published by Taylor & Francis until 2016 and since then by IOS Press.
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could be used for "artificial deliberative agents" (ADAs) or computational reasoning.
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Extended
Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
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Since about 2018, argument technology has been growing rapidly, with, for example,
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1191:. Studies in logic and argumentation. Vol. 68. London: College Publications.
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471:. These analytics have been developed in both academic and commercial settings.
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provides a summary of the societal motivations for work in argument technology.
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Loll, Frank; Pinkwart, Niels; Scheuer, Oliver; McLaren, Bruce M. (July 2009).
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238:, for instance, can be greatly enhanced by such software tools and services.
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critical thinking, argumentation, ethics, law, mathematics, and philosophy.
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to populate such maps and to integrate data, optimize and assess arguments.
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Rahwan, Iyad; Reed, Chris (2009), Simari, Guillermo; Rahwan, Iyad (eds.),
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An argument assistant is a software tool which support users when writing
1999:"Employing argumentation knowledge graphs for neural argument generation"
1318:
Lawrence, John; Bex, Floris; Reed, Chris; Snaith, Mark (September 2012).
1096:"Priority Programme "Robust Argumentation Machines (RATIO)" (SPP 1999/2)"
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Bex, Floris J.; Snaith, Mark; Lawrence, John; Reed, Chris (March 2014).
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Argument technology has applications in a variety of domains, including
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1386:. Lecture notes in computer science. Vol. 7926. Berlin; New York:
898:
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Reed, C. & Norman, T.J. (eds) Argumentation
Machines. Kluwer, 2003.
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1347:"Identifying argumentative discourse structures in persuasive essays"
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AI Exposes A Group Behind Covid, Brexit & Climate, w Stephen Fry.
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932:"Computer-supported argumentation: A review of the state of the art"
843:"Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Argument Mining – ACL Anthology"
699:, the details of which are stored in, and some steps provided by, a
53:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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1745:"Towards a flexible intelligent tutoring system for argumentation"
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and to agree or disagree with the selected content, posting their
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Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web
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and has a variety of sub-fields, methodologies and technologies.
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can provide structured, semi-formal frameworks for representing
261:
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Goldin, Ilya M.; Ashley, Kevin D.; Pinkus, Rosa L. (May 2001).
783:"The ASPIC+ framework for structured argumentation: a tutorial"
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169:
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18:
1322:. In Verheij, Bart; Szeider, Stefan; Woltran, Stefan (eds.).
1896:"Cognitive tutor: applied research in mathematics education"
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Applications of artificial intelligence to legal informatics
1305:
42nd German Conference on Artificial Intelligence (KI 2019)
930:
Scheuer, O.; Loll, F.; Pinkwart, N.; McLaren, B.M. (2010).
1301:"Data acquisition for argument search: the args.me corpus"
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reasoning and designing robust coordination protocols for
1602:
Hansson, Sven Ove; Hirsch Hadorn, Gertrude (2018-12-02).
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Argument Technologies: Theory, Analysis, and Applications
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Visser, Jacky; Lawrence, John; Reed, Chris (2020-10-22).
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system whose actions can be easily understood by humans.
371:, or argumentation mining, is a research area within the
2008:. Association for Computational Linguistics: 4744–4754.
1790:"Introducing PETE: computer support for teaching ethics"
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823:
42:
1696:"Towards a design science of ethical decision support"
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Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation
1423:. Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1–7.
747:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 615–675,
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of word processor software or those of Web browsers.
1956:
Brüggemeier, Birgit; Lalone, Philip (January 2022).
873:"Computational Models of Argument conference series"
1604:"Argument-based decision support for risk analysis"
1225:"ArguBlogging: an application for the argument web"
364:
Argumentation theory § Artificial intelligence
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promote one's ability to grasp and to make sense of
276:and interoperating with blogging platforms such as
95:In the 1980s and 1990s, philosophical theories of
1027:
1025:
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695:, with which a human can guide the search for
1563:Introne, Joshua; Iandoli, Luca (2014-08-01).
977:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 383–402,
115:. At the same time, mechanisms for computing
8:
1320:"AIFdb: Infrastructure for the Argument Web"
625:abilities of a human expert in the field of
538:which supports users in legal reasoning and
741:"Argumentation and Artificial Intelligence"
824:"Computational Models of Natural Argument"
1973:
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1345:Stab, Christian; Gurevych, Iryna (2014).
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936:Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
851:Association for Computational Linguistics
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69:Learn how and when to remove this message
975:Argumentation in Artificial Intelligence
504:An ethical decision support system is a
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913:"Journal of Argument & Computation"
891:"Journal of Argument & Computation"
730:
434:Structured debates from platforms like
160:in March 2021; German research funder,
154:, results for which were published in
534:A legal decision support system is a
406:Automated argumentative essay scoring
7:
16:Sub-field of artificial intelligence
1855:Association for Computing Machinery
1798:Association for Computing Machinery
1694:Mathieson, Kieran (December 2007).
1280:Aharoni, Ehud; et al. (2014).
552:Explainable artificial intelligence
546:Explainable artificial intelligence
485:Intelligent decision support system
172:in 2019. A 2021 video narrated by
14:
1904:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
971:"The Argument Interchange Format"
332:information rapidly and readily.
1651:ACM SIGCAS Computers and Society
1324:Computational Models of Argument
745:Handbook of Argumentation Theory
398:or to help debaters prepare for
23:
1034:"An autonomous debating system"
494:Ethical decision support system
1962:Computer Speech & Language
1:
2014:10.18653/v1/2021.acl-long.366
1620:10.1080/13669877.2017.1313767
1332:10.3233/978-1-61499-111-3-515
560:Free and open source software
520:Legal decision support system
1396:10.1007/978-3-642-39112-5_66
1245:10.1016/j.websem.2014.02.002
991:10.1007/978-0-387-98197-0_19
800:10.1080/19462166.2013.869766
753:10.1007/978-90-481-9473-5_11
556:Argument § Explanations
1121:"Reason-checking fake news"
652:is a part of the ethics of
592:intelligent tutoring system
586:Intelligent tutoring system
580:Intelligent tutoring system
373:natural language processing
141:Argument Interchange Format
49:the claims made and adding
2058:
1751:. IEEE. pp. 647–648.
1701:Journal of Business Ethics
1286:Proceedings of COLING 2014
1058:10.1038/s41586-021-03215-w
787:Argument & Computation
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129:Argument & Computation
1975:10.1016/j.csl.2021.101269
1714:10.1007/s10551-006-9281-4
1581:10.1016/j.dss.2014.04.005
1351:Proceedings of EMNLP 2014
1125:Communications of the ACM
1000:21.11116/0000-0002-CA71-B
948:10.1007/s11412-009-9080-x
448:on the prior conversation
389:Search engine (computing)
268:. It is implemented as a
1608:Journal of Risk Research
1569:Decision Support Systems
508:which supports users in
121:Argumentation frameworks
1673:10.1145/1052791.1052792
1429:10.1145/3411763.3451815
781:Prakken, Henry (2014).
675:Computer-assisted proof
654:artificial intelligence
619:artificial intelligence
574:artificial intelligence
570:artificial intelligence
536:decision support system
506:decision support system
481:Decision support system
475:Decision support system
452:argument weight ratings
412:Automated essay scoring
346:collective intelligence
222:Computer-assisted proof
90:artificial intelligence
86:collective intelligence
1767:10.1109/ICALT.2009.138
1299:Ajjour, Yamen (2019).
707:Ethical considerations
455:
439:
326:diagrammatic reasoning
306:
1863:10.1145/112646.112651
1816:10.1145/383535.383546
719:user interface design
613:is a domain-specific
445:
433:
301:
197:intelligence analysis
1510:"Argument Analytics"
1390:. pp. 591–594.
465:competitive debating
266:linked argument data
232:plugin architectures
166:The Evidence Toolkit
150:'s Grand Challenge,
101:argumentation theory
2042:Argument technology
1487:10.18564/jasss.4725
1360:10.3115/v1/D14-1006
1050:2021Natur.591..379S
983:2009aai..book..383R
611:legal expert system
605:Legal expert system
599:Legal expert system
526:Legal expert system
375:field. The goal of
316:representations of
113:multi-agent systems
82:Argument technology
1927:10.3758/bf03194060
1857:. pp. 42–52.
1800:. pp. 94–98.
1514:analytics.arg.tech
877:www.comma-conf.org
685:mathematical logic
456:
440:
340:using interactive
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212:Argument assistant
84:is a sub-field of
34:possibly contains
1872:978-0-89791-399-7
1825:978-1-58113-368-4
1614:(12): 1449–1464.
1044:(7850): 379–384.
1010:978-0-387-98197-0
762:978-90-481-9473-5
426:Debate technology
420:Debate technology
242:Argument blogging
193:political science
137:argument analysis
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621:to emulate the
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383:Argument search
377:argument mining
369:Argument mining
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358:Argument mining
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352:Argument mining
342:visual language
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236:Internet forums
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152:Project Debater
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