1256:) constitutes a non-finite clause. The subject-predicate relationship that has long been taken as the defining trait of clauses is fully present in the a-sentences. The fact that the b-sentences are also acceptable illustrates the enigmatic behavior of gerunds. They seem to straddle two syntactic categories: they can function as non-finite verbs or as nouns. When they function as nouns as in the b-sentences, it is debatable whether they constitute clauses, since nouns are not generally taken to be constitutive of clauses.
530:-clauses concerns the absence of subject-auxiliary inversion in embedded clauses, as illustrated in the c-examples just produced. Subject-auxiliary inversion is obligatory in matrix clauses when something other than the subject is focused, but it never occurs in embedded clauses regardless of the constituent that is focused. A systematic distinction in word order emerges across matrix
1472:, a fact that undermines their status as clauses. Hence one can debate whether the underlined strings in these examples should qualify as clauses. The layered structures of the chomskyan tradition are again likely to view the underlined strings as clauses, whereas the schools of syntax that posit flatter structures are likely to reject clause status for them.
32:
1142:
acknowledged at least three projection levels for every lexical head: a minimal projection (e.g. N, V, P, etc.), an intermediate projection (e.g. N', V', P', etc.), and a phrase level projection (e.g. NP, VP, PP, etc.). Extending this convention to the clausal categories occurred in the interest of
1146:
This use of labels should not, however, be confused with the actual status of the syntactic units to which the labels are attached. A more traditional understanding of clauses and phrases maintains that phrases are not clauses, and clauses are not phrases. There is a progression in the size and
1137:
of the
Chomskyan tradition. In the 1970s, Chomskyan grammars began labeling many clauses as CPs (i.e. complementizer phrases) or as IPs (i.e. inflection phrases), and then later as TPs (i.e. tense phrases), etc. The choice of labels was influenced by the theory-internal desire to use the labels
1064:
These two embedded clauses are adjunct clauses because they provide circumstantial information that modifies a superordinate expression. The first is a dependent of the main verb of the matrix clause and the second is a dependent of the object noun. The arrow dependency edges identify them as
224:
Declarative clauses like these are by far the most frequently occurring type of clause in any language. They can be viewed as basic, with other clause types being derived from them. Standard SV-clauses can also be interrogative or exclamative, however, given the appropriate intonation
1467:
The subject-predicate relationship is clearly present in the underlined strings. The expression on the right is a predication over the noun phrase immediately to its left. While the subject-predicate relationship is indisputably present, the underlined strings do not behave as single
184:. Traditional grammar focuses on finite clauses, the awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen much later in connection with the modern study of syntax. The discussion here also focuses on finite clauses, although some aspects of non-finite clauses are considered further below.
271:
Examples like these demonstrate that how a clause functions cannot be known based entirely on a single distinctive syntactic criterion. SV-clauses are usually declarative, but intonation and/or the appearance of a question word can render them interrogative or exclamative.
187:
Clauses can be classified according to a distinctive trait that is a prominent characteristic of their syntactic form. The position of the finite verb is one major trait used for classification, and the appearance of a specific type of focusing word (e.g.
1007:
Some of the distinctions presented above are represented in syntax trees. These trees make the difference between main and subordinate clauses very clear, and they also illustrate well the difference between argument and adjunct clauses. The following
692:. That is, embedded clauses can be an argument of a predicate, an adjunct on a predicate, or (part of) the predicate itself. The predicate in question is usually the predicate of an independent clause, but embedding of predicates is also frequent.
192:) is another. These two criteria overlap to an extent, which means that often no single aspect of syntactic form is always decisive in deciding how the clause functions. There are, however, strong tendencies.
382:-words often serve to help express a constituent question. They are also prevalent, though, as relative pronouns, in which case they serve to introduce a relative clause and are not part of a question. The
173:. An independent clause can stand alone, i.e. it can constitute a complete sentence by itself. A dependent clause, by contrast, relies on an independent clause's presence to be efficiently utilizable.
503:
is obligatory when something other than the subject is focused. When it is the subject (or something embedded in the subject) that is focused, however, subject-auxiliary inversion does not occur.
200:
Standard SV-clauses (subject-verb) are the norm in
English. They are usually declarative (as opposed to exclamative, imperative, or interrogative); they express information neutrally, e.g.
1073:
is running counter to the direction of the syntactic dependency; the adjunct is selecting its governor. The next four trees illustrate the distinction mentioned above between matrix
1028:
The independent clause comprises the entire trees in both instances, whereas the embedded clauses constitute arguments of the respective independent clauses: the embedded
212:...that I've been hungry for two hours. – Declarative clause, standard SV order, but functioning as a subordinate clause due to the appearance of the
1151:. The characteristic trait of clauses, i.e. the presence of a subject and a (finite) verb, is absent from phrases. Clauses can be, however, embedded inside phrases.
1089:
1020:
823:
as in the b-clauses here have an outward appearance that is closely similar to that of content clauses. The relative clauses are adjuncts, however, not arguments.
355:
Most verb first clauses are independent clauses. Verb first conditional clauses, however, must be classified as embedded clauses because they cannot stand alone.
1354:, which means they determine which of their arguments serves as the subject argument of the embedded predicate. Some theories of syntax posit the null subject
1048:. Both of these argument clauses are dependent on the verb of the matrix clause. The following trees identify adjunct clauses using an arrow dependency edge:
386:-word focuses a particular constituent, and most of the time, it appears in clause-initial position. The following examples illustrate standard interrogative
1056:
153:(one that could stand alone as a simple sentence), which may be co-ordinated with other independents with or without dependents. Some dependent clauses are
390:-clauses. The b-sentences are direct questions (independent clauses), and the c-sentences contain the corresponding indirect questions (embedded clauses):
176:
A second significant distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-finite clauses. A finite clause contains a structurally central
704:. Argument clauses can appear as subjects, as objects, and as obliques. They can also modify a noun predicate, in which case they are known as
1640:
1600:
1397:
680:
Embedded clauses can be categorized according to their syntactic function in terms of predicate-argument structures. They can function as
1557:
Most basic discussions of the clause emphasize the distinction between main and subordinate clauses. See for instance
Crystal (1997:62).
776:
The following examples illustrate argument clauses that provide the content of a noun. Such argument clauses are content clauses:
1173:). There are various types of non-finite clauses that can be acknowledged based in part on the type of non-finite verb at hand.
281:
893:. Adjunct clauses can also modify a nominal predicate. The typical instance of this type of adjunct is a relative clause, e.g.
831:
Adjunct clauses are embedded clauses that modify an entire predicate-argument structure. All clause types (SV-, verb first,
1105:-word across the matrix clauses (a-trees) and the embedded clauses (b-trees) captures the difference in word order. Matrix
1730:
1389:
1185:, which often lack a verb altogether. It should be apparent that non-finite clauses are (by and large) embedded clauses.
1181:-infinitives to be the structural locus of non-finite clauses. Finally, some modern grammars also acknowledge so-called
1720:
1271:-infinitives to be constitutive of non-finite clauses. This stance is supported by the clear predicate status of many
500:
1566:
Numerous dependency grammar trees like the ones produced here can be found, for instance, in
Osborne and GroĂź (2012).
1314:
clearly qualify as predicates (because they can be negated). They do not, however, take overt subjects. The subjects
819:
The content clauses like these in the a-sentences are arguments. Relative clauses introduced by the relative pronoun
1673:
835:) can function as adjuncts, although the stereotypical adjunct clause is SV and introduced by a subordinator (i.e.
1680:
Timothy
Osborne; Thomas Gross (2012). "Constructions are catenae: Construction Grammar meets Dependency Grammar".
1700:
1469:
1420:
Another type of construction that some schools of syntax and grammar view as non-finite clauses is the so-called
75:
981:
These predicative clauses are functioning just like other predicative expressions, e.g. predicative adjectives (
1134:
1066:
641:
1486:
1088:
1070:
1019:
836:
284:, 2. they express a condition as an embedded clause, or 3. they express a command via imperative mood, e.g.
20:
1548:
For a definition of the clause that emphasizes the subject-predicate relationship, see
Radford (2004327f.).
114:. However, the subject is sometimes unexpressed if it is easily deductable from the context, especially in
1506:
1408:) reject the presence of null elements such as PRO, which means they are likely to reject the stance that
941:
689:
681:
213:
1012:
trees show that embedded clauses are dependent on an element in the independent clause, often on a verb:
1335:
916:
were singing loudly. – Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun
685:
226:
115:
957:. – Predicative SV-clause, i.e. a clause that functions as (part of) the main predicate
189:
1632:
1401:
1206:
b. Bill's stopping of the project was a big disappointment. – Gerund with noun status
1117:-word is a dependent of the finite verb, whereas it is the head over the finite verb in the embedded
996:
280:
Verb first clauses in
English usually play one of three roles: 1. They express a yes/no-question via
111:
240:
1177:
are widely acknowledged to constitute non-finite clauses, and some modern grammars also judge many
1055:
593:
is he trying to avoid? – Subject-auxiliary inversion results in VS order in matrix
95:
87:
1405:
1393:
1385:-infinitives can be construed as complete clauses, since both subject and predicate are present.
1009:
548:
are they doing that? – Subject-auxiliary inversion results in VS order in matrix
252:
b. The pig has not yet been fed! – Spoken forcefully, this clause is exclamative.
149:
1222:
b. We've heard about Susan's attempting of a solution. – Gerund with noun status
1113:, whereas embedded wh-clauses have (what amounts to) V3 word order. In the matrix clauses, the
1636:
1626:
1516:
1355:
1160:
154:
91:
1725:
1689:
1491:
1481:
806: – Argument clause that provides the content of a noun (i.e. content clause)
786: – Argument clause that provides the content of a noun (i.e. content clause)
666:
367:
142:
138:
107:
79:
1501:
1166:
647:
637:
181:
130:
123:
119:
650:
are a mixed group. In
English they can be standard SV-clauses if they are introduced by
45:
Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the
1193:
The underlined words in the following examples are considered non-finite clauses, e.g.
719:
was really appreciated. – SV-clause functioning as the subject argument
706:
308:
he stopped laughing, ... – Condition expressed by verb first order
261:
c. You've been hungry for how long? – Appearance of interrogative word
209:
I've been hungry for two hours. – Declarative clause, standard SV order
1424:. A typical small clause consists of a noun phrase and a predicative expression, e.g.
1714:
1238:
b. They mentioned his cheating on the test. – Gerund with noun status
1110:
926:. – Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun
903:. – Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun
342:
they done the job, ... – Condition expressed by verb first order
206:
The pig has not yet been fed. – Declarative clause, standard SV order
1421:
1182:
1139:
294:
stop laughing. – Standard declarative SV-clause (verb second order)
520:
did you call? – Object focused, subject-auxiliary inversion occurs
464:
a. Larry sent Susan to the store. – Standard declarative SV-clause
430:
a. Larry sent Susan to the store. – Standard declarative SV-clause
335:
they done the job? – Yes/no-question expressed by verb first order
328:
done the job. – Standard declarative SV-clause (verb second order)
301:
he stop laughing? – Yes/no-question expressed by verb first order
1170:
177:
134:
99:
46:
1388:
PRO-theory is particular to one tradition in the study of syntax and grammar (
513:
called you? – Subject focused, no subject-auxiliary inversion
1614:
872:, the party started. – Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause
700:
A clause that functions as the argument of a given predicate is known as an
165:
A primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction between
83:
475:-clause focusing on the oblique object, subject-auxiliary inversion present
31:
1693:
1133:. This confusion is due in part to how these concepts are employed in the
489:-clause focusing on the oblique object, subject-auxiliary inversion absent
180:, whereas the structurally central word of a non-finite clause is often a
67:
1358:(i.e. pronoun) to help address the facts of control constructions, e.g.
813: – Adjunct clause (relative clause) that modifies a noun
793: – Adjunct clause (relative clause) that modifies a noun
235:
a. The pig has not yet been fed? – Rising intonation on
1650:
1535:
659:
621:. – Subject-auxiliary inversion is blocked in embedded
576:. – Subject-auxiliary inversion is blocked in embedded
396:
a. Sam likes the meat. – Standard declarative SV-clause
1588:
For the basic characteristics of small clauses, see
Crystal (1997:62).
607:. – Subject-auxiliary inversion is absent in embedded
562:. – Subject-auxiliary inversion is absent in embedded
1511:
1496:
1174:
1130:
1203:
was a big disappointment. – Non-finite gerund clause
944:. That is, it can form (part of) the predicate of a greater clause.
437:
did Larry send to the store? – Matrix interrogative
1129:
There has been confusion about the distinction between clauses and
441:-clause focusing on the object, subject-auxiliary inversion present
315:
laughing! – Imperative formed with verb first order
157:, i.e. does not contain any element/verb marking a specific tense.
1434:. – Small clause with the predicative noun phrase
455:-clause focusing on the object, subject-auxiliary inversion absent
349:
the job! – Imperative formed with verb first order
1454:. – Small clause with the predicative non-finite
16:
Smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition
1444:. – Small clause with the predicative adjective
726:. – SV-clause functioning as the object argument
103:
1334:-infinitives. Data like these are often addressed in terms of
25:
1101:-clause is an object argument each time. The position of the
471:
did Larry send Susan? – Matrix interrogative
1065:
adjuncts. The arrow points away from the adjunct towards it
885:
These adjunct clauses modify the entire matrix clause. Thus
265:
and rising intonation make the clause a constituent question
865:. – Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause
1275:-infinitives. It is challenged, however, by the fact that
879:. – Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause
1575:
For an example of a grammar that acknowledges non-finite
676:
Clauses according to semantic predicate-argument function
1346:
are control verbs; they control the embedded predicates
118:
but also in other languages, including instances of the
403:
likes the meat? – Matrix interrogative
975:-clause that functions as (part of) the main predicate
1165:
The central word of a non-finite clause is usually a
995:). They form the matrix predicate together with the
654:
or lack a relative pronoun entirely, or they can be
770:-clause functioning as an oblique object argument
1279:-infinitives do not take an overt subject, e.g.
889:in the first example modifies the matrix clause
534:-clauses, which can have VS order, and embedded
538:-clauses, which always maintain SV order, e.g.
229:and/or the appearance of a question word, e.g.
1396:). Other theories of syntax and grammar (e.g.
8:
1707:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1381:With the presence of PRO as a null subject,
1235:. – Non-finite gerund clause
1219:. – Non-finite gerund clause
1579:-infinitive clauses, see Radford (2004:23).
742:-clause functioning as the subject argument
417:. – Embedded interrogative
940:An embedded clause can also function as a
141:contain at least one clause subordinated (
1628:A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics
1267:Some modern theories of syntax take many
1044:is the subject argument of the predicate
756:-clause functioning as an object argument
1244:Each of the gerunds in the a-sentences (
1036:is the object argument of the predicate
1527:
43:about clauses in non-English languages.
1651:"Glossary of Linguistic Terms: Clause"
658:-clauses if they are introduced by a
7:
1398:Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar
1625:David Crystal (23 September 2011).
1322:are dependents of the matrix verbs
1670:Analysing Grammar: An Introduction
922:c. They are waiting for some food
738:was ridiculous. –
86:(expressed or not) and a semantic
14:
1412:-infinitives constitute clauses.
90:. A typical clause consists of a
1087:
1054:
1018:
967:. – Predicative
133:contains a single clause with a
30:
1705:English syntax: An introduction
1149:words < phrases < clauses
495:One important aspect of matrix
421:-clause focusing on the subject
407:-clause focusing on the subject
1143:the consistent use of labels.
784:that he was going to change it
1:
1390:Government and Binding Theory
724:that they had actually helped
485:. – Embedded
451:. – Embedded
988:) and predicative nominals (
804:that we should alter the law
526:Another important aspect of
1373:PRO to explain his concerns
1330:, respectively, not of the
1217:Susan attempting a solution
1147:status of syntactic units:
501:subject-auxiliary inversion
282:subject–auxiliary inversion
1747:
1674:Cambridge University Press
1158:
1069:to indicate that semantic
875:c. Susan skipped the meal
635:
82:that comprises a semantic
18:
1668:Kroeger, Paul R. (2005).
1615:Resources in your library
1366:PRO to consider the issue
1201:Bill stopping the project
1135:phrase structure grammars
717:That they actually helped
98:, the latter typically a
1338:. The matrix predicates
1233:him cheating on the test
642:English relative clauses
478:c. Someone is wondering
1487:Balancing and deranking
1294:to explain his concerns
837:subordinate conjunction
690:predicative expressions
449:Larry sent to the store
21:Clause (disambiguation)
1507:Sentence (linguistics)
1077:-clauses and embedded
1040:; the embedded clause
965:he always wanted to be
942:predicative expression
877:because she is fasting
161:Two major distinctions
41:is missing information
1694:10.1515/cog-2012-0006
1682:Cognitive Linguistics
1633:John Wiley & Sons
1287:to consider the issue
1215:a. We've heard about
899:a. We like the music
619:is he trying to avoid
605:he is trying to avoid
116:null-subject language
1731:Syntactic categories
1402:Construction Grammar
1003:Representing clauses
766:. –
752:. –
106:with or without any
19:For other uses, see
1538:. 10 February 2017.
1263:-infinitive clauses
936:Predicative clauses
574:are they doing that
560:they are doing that
374:-clauses contain a
239:makes the clause a
196:Standard SV-clauses
167:independent clauses
1721:Syntactic entities
1406:dependency grammar
1394:Minimalist Program
1231:a. They mentioned
1155:Non-finite clauses
1138:consistently. The
1125:Clauses vs phrases
1042:that he is gaining
1010:dependency grammar
924:that will not come
870:After Fred arrived
276:Verb first clauses
150:independent clause
1672:. Cambridge. UK:
1642:978-1-4443-5675-5
1601:Library resources
1517:Thematic equative
1169:(as opposed to a
1161:Non-finite clause
791:that he expressed
665:that serves as a
569:c. *They told us
499:-clauses is that
171:dependent clauses
139:Complex sentences
64:
63:
1738:
1697:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1655:glossary.sil.org
1646:
1589:
1586:
1580:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1549:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1532:
1492:Dependent clause
1482:Adverbial clause
1371:b. He attempted
1292:a. He attempted
1091:
1058:
1022:
901:that you brought
861:a. Fred arrived
759:He talked about
696:Argument clauses
667:relative pronoun
648:Relative clauses
632:Relative clauses
555:b. They told us
483:Larry sent Susan
94:and a syntactic
59:
56:
50:
34:
26:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1711:
1710:
1701:Radford, Andrew
1679:
1659:
1657:
1649:
1643:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1609:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1502:Relative clause
1478:
1440:Something made
1418:
1364:b. She refuses
1285:a. She refuses
1265:
1191:
1167:non-finite verb
1163:
1157:
1127:
1005:
938:
829:
827:Adjunct clauses
722:They mentioned
707:content clauses
702:argument clause
698:
678:
672:
645:
638:Relative clause
634:
364:
278:
241:yes/no question
198:
182:non-finite verb
163:
131:simple sentence
120:imperative mood
60:
54:
51:
44:
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1744:
1742:
1734:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1698:
1688:(1): 163–214.
1677:
1666:
1647:
1641:
1618:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1581:
1568:
1559:
1550:
1541:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1477:
1474:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1448:
1438:
1417:
1414:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1369:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1290:
1264:
1258:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1236:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1220:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1190:
1189:Gerund clauses
1187:
1159:Main article:
1156:
1153:
1126:
1123:
1109:-clauses have
1095:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1004:
1001:
979:
978:
977:
976:
971:-clause, i.e.
958:
937:
934:
933:
932:
931:
930:
920:
909:b. The people
907:
887:before you did
883:
882:
881:
880:
873:
866:
863:before you did
855:, etc.), e.g.
828:
825:
817:
816:
815:
814:
807:
797:
796:
795:
794:
787:
774:
773:
772:
771:
757:
743:
730:
729:
728:
727:
720:
697:
694:
677:
674:
636:Main article:
633:
630:
629:
628:
627:
626:
612:
598:
584:
583:
582:
581:
567:
553:
524:
523:
522:
521:
514:
493:
492:
491:
490:
476:
465:
459:
458:
457:
456:
442:
431:
425:
424:
423:
422:
415:likes the meat
410:c. They asked
408:
397:
363:
357:
353:
352:
351:
350:
343:
336:
329:
319:
318:
317:
316:
309:
302:
295:
277:
274:
269:
268:
267:
266:
256:
255:
254:
253:
247:
246:
245:
244:
222:
221:
220:
219:
210:
207:
197:
194:
162:
159:
102:composed of a
62:
61:
38:
36:
29:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1743:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1594:
1585:
1582:
1578:
1572:
1569:
1563:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1537:
1531:
1528:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1416:Small clauses
1415:
1413:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1384:
1374:
1370:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1306:-infinitives
1305:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1183:small clauses
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1144:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:V2 word order
1108:
1104:
1100:
1097:The embedded
1090:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1057:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1046:is motivating
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1011:
1002:
1000:
998:
994:
993:
987:
986:
974:
970:
966:
964:
960:b. He became
959:
956:
954:
949:
948:
947:
946:
945:
943:
935:
929:
925:
921:
919:
915:
914:brought music
913:
908:
906:
902:
898:
897:
896:
895:
894:
892:
888:
878:
874:
871:
867:
864:
860:
859:
858:
857:
856:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
826:
824:
822:
812:
808:
805:
801:
800:
799:
798:
792:
789:b. the claim
788:
785:
782:a. the claim
781:
780:
779:
778:
777:
769:
765:
763:
758:
755:
751:
749:
744:
741:
737:
734:
733:
732:
731:
725:
721:
718:
715:
714:
713:
712:
711:
709:
708:
703:
695:
693:
691:
687:
683:
675:
673:
670:
668:
664:
662:
657:
653:
649:
643:
639:
631:
624:
620:
618:
613:
610:
606:
604:
599:
596:
592:
588:
587:
586:
585:
579:
575:
573:
568:
565:
561:
559:
554:
551:
547:
543:
542:
541:
540:
539:
537:
533:
529:
519:
515:
512:
508:
507:
506:
505:
504:
502:
498:
488:
484:
482:
477:
474:
470:
466:
463:
462:
461:
460:
454:
450:
448:
443:
440:
436:
432:
429:
428:
427:
426:
420:
416:
414:
409:
406:
402:
398:
395:
394:
393:
392:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
361:
358:
356:
348:
344:
341:
337:
334:
330:
327:
323:
322:
321:
320:
314:
310:
307:
303:
300:
296:
293:
289:
288:
287:
286:
285:
283:
275:
273:
264:
260:
259:
258:
257:
251:
250:
249:
248:
242:
238:
234:
233:
232:
231:
230:
228:
218:
215:
211:
208:
205:
204:
203:
202:
201:
195:
193:
191:
185:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
160:
158:
156:
152:
151:
146:
145:
140:
136:
132:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
58:
55:November 2013
48:
42:
39:This article
37:
33:
28:
27:
22:
1704:
1685:
1681:
1669:
1658:. Retrieved
1654:
1627:
1605:
1584:
1576:
1571:
1562:
1553:
1544:
1530:
1470:constituents
1466:
1459:
1458:-infinitive
1455:
1451:
1445:
1441:
1435:
1431:
1430:We consider
1422:small clause
1419:
1409:
1387:
1382:
1380:
1372:
1365:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1301:
1293:
1286:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1260:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1243:
1232:
1216:
1200:
1192:
1178:
1164:
1148:
1145:
1140:X-bar schema
1128:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1096:
1078:
1074:
1063:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1034:what we want
1033:
1029:
1027:
1006:
991:
989:
984:
982:
980:
972:
968:
962:
961:
955:they laughed
952:
951:
950:a. That was
939:
927:
923:
917:
911:
910:
904:
900:
891:Fred arrived
890:
886:
884:
876:
869:
862:
852:
848:
844:
840:
832:
830:
820:
818:
811:that came up
810:
809:b. the idea
803:
802:a. the idea
790:
783:
775:
767:
761:
760:
753:
747:
746:
739:
736:What he said
735:
723:
716:
705:
701:
699:
679:
671:
660:
655:
651:
646:
622:
616:
615:
614:c. *We know
608:
602:
601:
594:
590:
577:
571:
570:
563:
557:
556:
549:
545:
535:
531:
527:
525:
517:
510:
496:
494:
486:
480:
479:
472:
468:
452:
446:
445:
438:
434:
418:
412:
411:
404:
400:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
365:
359:
354:
346:
339:
332:
325:
312:
305:
298:
291:
279:
270:
262:
236:
223:
216:
214:subordinator
199:
186:
175:
170:
166:
164:
148:
143:
128:
71:
65:
52:
40:
1432:that a joke
1308:to consider
1171:finite verb
764:he had said
640:. See also
600:b. We know
444:c. We know
178:finite verb
135:finite verb
129:A complete
100:verb phrase
76:constituent
1715:Categories
1660:11 October
1595:References
1452:us to stay
1450:She wants
1312:to explain
1250:attempting
1121:-clauses.
155:non-finite
110:and other
1442:him angry
1344:attempted
1328:attempted
1081:-clauses
1071:selection
992:the truth
990:That was
983:That was
682:arguments
190:'Wh'-word
144:dependent
112:modifiers
96:predicate
88:predicate
84:predicand
47:talk page
1703:(2004).
1536:"Clause"
1476:See also
1348:consider
1254:cheating
1246:stopping
1067:governor
1032:-clause
745:We know
688:, or as
686:adjuncts
625:-clause.
597:-clause.
580:-clause.
566:-clause.
552:-clause.
362:-clauses
324:a. They
147:) to an
68:language
1726:Clauses
1460:to stay
1352:explain
1340:refuses
1336:control
1324:refuses
1175:Gerunds
1131:phrases
845:because
839:, e.g.
750:he said
611:clause.
378:-word.
368:English
227:contour
124:English
108:objects
92:subject
1639:
1606:Clause
1603:about
1512:T-unit
1497:Phrase
1436:a joke
1252:, and
997:copula
918:people
849:before
299:Should
290:a. He
80:phrase
72:clause
1523:Notes
1446:angry
905:music
841:after
684:, as
663:-word
481:where
469:Where
74:is a
1662:2023
1637:ISBN
1350:and
1342:and
1326:and
1318:and
1310:and
1302:The
1038:know
985:good
963:what
953:when
928:food
821:that
762:what
748:what
652:that
617:whom
603:whom
591:Whom
518:Whom
447:whom
435:Whom
333:Have
326:have
313:Stop
292:must
217:that
169:and
104:verb
70:, a
1690:doi
1356:PRO
1316:she
1199:a.
912:who
868:b.
853:now
833:wh-
609:wh-
589:a.
572:why
558:why
546:Why
544:a.
516:b.
511:Who
509:a.
467:b.
433:b.
413:who
401:Who
399:b.
366:In
345:d.
340:Had
338:c.
331:b.
311:d.
306:Had
304:c.
297:b.
263:how
237:fed
122:in
78:or
66:In
1717::
1686:23
1684:.
1653:.
1635:.
1631:.
1577:to
1456:to
1410:to
1404:,
1400:,
1392:,
1383:to
1332:to
1320:he
1304:to
1277:to
1273:to
1269:to
1261:to
1248:,
1179:to
1119:wh
1115:wh
1107:wh
1103:wh
1099:wh
1079:wh
1075:wh
1030:wh
999:.
973:wh
969:wh
851:,
847:,
843:,
768:Wh
754:Wh
740:Wh
710:.
669:.
661:wh
656:wh
623:wh
595:wh
578:wh
564:wh
550:wh
536:wh
532:wh
528:wh
497:wh
487:wh
473:wh
453:wh
439:wh
419:wh
405:wh
388:wh
384:wh
380:Wh
376:wh
372:Wh
370:,
360:Wh
347:Do
137:.
126:.
1696:.
1692::
1676:.
1664:.
1645:.
1375:.
1368:.
1296:.
1289:.
644:.
243:.
57:)
53:(
49:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
