Concentrator photovoltaics - Knowledge (XXG)

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production of all components, relaxes the module assembling and system installation, and decreasing the cost of structural elements. Since the main goal of CPV is to make solar energy inexpensive, there are only a few surfaces that can be used. Decreasing the number of elements and achieving high acceptance angle, can be relaxed optical and mechanical requirements, such as accuracy of the optical surfaces profiles, the module assembling, the installation, the supporting structure, etc. To this end, improvements in sun-shape modelling at the system design stage may lead to higher system efficiencies.

1634: 1646: 1680: 69: 1433: 486: 1463:, have been re-designed due to the high-current density encountered with CPV (typically 8 A/cm at 500 suns). Though the cost of multi-junction solar cells is roughly 100 times that of conventional silicon cells of the same area, the small cell area employed makes the relative costs of cells in each system comparable and the system economics favor the multi-junction cells. Multi-junction cell efficiency has now reached 44% in production cells. 7232: 2961: 2542:, the demand for heat from the secondary side of the exchanger must be consistently high. Collection efficiencies exceeding 70% are anticipated under optimal operating conditions, with up to 35% electric and exceeding 40% thermal for HCPVT. Net operating efficiencies may be substantially lower depending on how well a system is engineered to match the demands of the particular thermal application. 2975: 1467:

spectrum, lower optical power, and higher temperature. The optics needed to concentrate the light have limited efficiency themselves, in the range of 75–90%. Taking these factors into account, a solar module incorporating a 44% multi-junction cell might deliver a DC efficiency around 36%. Under similar conditions, a crystalline silicon module would deliver an efficiency of less than 18%.

278:. Diffuse light, which occurs in cloudy and overcast conditions, cannot be highly concentrated using conventional optical components only (i.e. macroscopic lenses and mirrors). Filtered light, which occurs in hazy or polluted conditions, has spectral variations which produce mismatches between the electrical currents generated within the series-connected junctions of spectrally "tuned" 1398: 7244: 43: 1671:, and SolFocus. The higher cost and complexity of maintaining the precision HCPV dual-axis trackers has also been reported in some instances to be especially challenging. Nevertheless, the growth outlook for the PV industry as a whole continues to be strong, thus providing continued optimism that CPV technology will eventually demonstrate its place. 1150: 1377:

optics, imperfectly assembled components, finite stiffness of the supporting structure or its deformation due to aging, among other factors. All of these reduce the initial acceptance angle and, after they are all factored in, the system must still be able to capture the finite angular aperture of sunlight.

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HCPVT active cooling enables the use of much higher power thermal–photovoltaic receiver units, generating typically 1–100 kilowatts (kW) electric, as compared to HCPV systems that mostly rely upon passive cooling of single ~20 W cells. Such high-power receivers utilize dense arrays of cells

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Concentrator photovoltaics technology established its presence in the solar industry during the period 2006 to 2015. The first HCPV power plant that exceeded 1 MW-level was commissioned in Spain in 2006. By the end of 2015, the number of CPV power plants (including both LCPV and HCPV) around the

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are currently favored over single junction cells, as they are more efficient and have a lower temperature coefficient (less loss in efficiency with an increase in temperature). The efficiency of both cell types rises with increased concentration; multi-junction efficiency rises faster. Multi-junction

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HCPVT offerings at over 700x concentration have more recently emerged, and may be classified into three power tiers. Third tier systems are distributed generators consisting of large arrays of ~20W single-cell receiver/collector units, similar to those previously pioneered by Amonix and SolFocus for

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and a concentrating optic. Optical sunlight concentrators for CPV introduce a very specific design problem, with features that make them different from most other optical designs. They have to be efficient, suitable for mass production, capable of high concentration, insensitive to manufacturing and

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and module support structure for a modern HCPV system must each remain accurate within 0.1°-0.3° in order to keep the solar resource adequately centered within the acceptance angle of the receiver collection optics, and thus concentrated onto the PV cells. This is a challenging requirement for any

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announced a first round of R&D funding in late 2015 for the MOSAIC Program (Microscale Optimized Solar-cell Arrays with Integrated Concentration) to further combat the location and expense challenges of existing CPV technology. As stated in the program description: "MOSAIC projects are grouped

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Research and development continued through the 1980s and 1990s without significant industry interest. Improvements in cell efficiency were soon recognized as essential to making the technology economical. However the improvements to Si-based cell technologies used by both concentrators and flat PV

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The economics of a mature CPVT industry is anticipated to be competitive, despite the large recent cost reductions and gradual efficiency improvements for conventional silicon PV (which can be installed alongside conventional CSP to provide for similar electrical+thermal generation capabilities).

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The emerging CPV segment has comprised ~0.1% of the fast-growing utility market for PV installations over the decade up to 2017. Unfortunately, following a rapid drop in traditional flat-panel PV prices, the near term outlook for CPV industry growth has faded as signaled by closure of the largest

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The 44% value given above is for a specific set of conditions known as "standard test conditions". These include a specific spectrum, an incident optical power of 850 W/m, and a cell temperature of 25 °C. In a concentrating system, the cell will typically operate under conditions of variable

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that concentrate sunlight to intensities of 1,000 suns or more. The solar cells require high-capacity heat sinks to prevent thermal destruction and to manage temperature related electrical performance and life expectancy losses. To further exacerbate the concentrated cooling design, the heat sink

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concentrations, a wide acceptance angle can be seen as a measure of how tolerant the optic is to imperfections in the whole system. It is vital to start with a wide acceptance angle since it must be able to accommodate tracking errors, movements of the system due to wind, imperfectly manufactured

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developed for terrestrial CPV applications achieve reliable operation at concentrations as high as 500–1000 suns (i.e. irradiances of 50-100 Watts/cm). As of year 2014, their efficiencies are upwards of 44% (three junctions), with the potential to approach 50% (four or more junctions) in the

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CPV research and development has been pursued in over 20 countries for more than a decade. The annual CPV-x conference series has served as a primary networking and exchange forum between university, government lab, and industry participants. Government agencies have also continued to encourage a

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LCPVT systems at ~14x concentration using reflective trough concentrators, and receiver pipes clad with silicon cells having dense interconnects, have been assembled by Cogenra with a claimed 75% efficiency (~15-20% electric, 60% thermal). Several such systems are in operation for more than five

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at the system, tracker, module, receiver, and other sub-component levels. However, such standardized tests – as typically performed on only a small sampling of units – are generally incapable to evaluate comprehensive long-term lifetimes (10 to 25 or more years) for each unique system design and

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When high concentration is needed (500–1000 times), as occurs in the case of high efficiency multi-junction solar cells, it is likely that it will be crucial for commercial success at the system level to achieve such concentration with a sufficient acceptance angle. This allows tolerance in mass

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The Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) extended its support in 2017 for further commercialization of the HCPV technology developed by Raygen. Their 250 kW dense array receivers are the most powerful CPV receivers thus far created, with demonstrated PV efficiency of 40.4% and include

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sees potential to increase the efficiency of this technology to 50% by the mid-2020s. As of December 2014, the best lab cell efficiency for concentrator MJ-cells reached 46% (four or more junctions). Under outdoor, operating conditions, CPV module efficiencies have exceeded 33% ("one third of a

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In Europe the CPVMATCH Program (Concentrating PhotoVoltaic Modules using Advanced Technologies and Cells for Highest efficiencies) aims "to bring practical performance of HCPV modules closer to theoretical limits". Efficiency goals achievable by 2019 are identified as 48% for cells and 40% for

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Low-concentration systems often have a simple booster reflector, which can increase solar electric output by over 30% from that of non-concentrator PV systems. Experimental results from such LCPV systems in Canada resulted in energy gains over 40% for prismatic glass and 45% for traditional

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Helmers, Henning; Höhn, Oliver; Lackner, David; Schygulla, Patrick; Klitzke, Malte; Schön, Jonas; Pellegrino, Carmine; Oliva, Eduard; Schachtner, Michael; Beutel, Paul; Heckelmann, Stefan; Predan, Felix; Ohlmann, Jens; Siefer, Gerald; Dimroth, Frank (2024-03-08). Freundlich, Alexandre;

2570:. For thermal applications having lower or intermittent demand, a system may be augmented with a switchable heat dump to the external environment in order to safeguard cell life and maintain reliable photovoltaic output, despite the resulting reduction in net operating efficiency. 4461: 4334: 2545:

The maximum temperature of CPVT systems is too low, typically below 80–90 °C, to alone power a boiler for additional steam-based cogeneration of electricity. These very low temperatures compared to CSP systems also make CPVT less compatible with efficient and economic

2578:. Minimizing the number of individual receiver units is a simplification that may ultimately yield improvement in the overall balance of system costs, manufacturability, maintainability/upgradeability, and reliability. A system combining receivers sized up to 1 MW 2662:

HCPV. Second tier systems utilize localized dense-arrays of cells that produce 1–100 kW of electrical power output per receiver/generator unit. First tier systems exceed 100 kW of electrical output and are most aggressive in targeting the utility market.

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relative to η is listed in the following table for a set of typical open-circuit voltages that roughly represent different cell technologies. The table shows that the enhancement can be as much as 20-30% at χ = 1000 concentration. The calculation assumes

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resistances to levels that accommodate the target concentration and resulting current density. These features include thin, low-defect semiconductor layers; thick, low-resistivity electrode & busbar materials; and small (typically <1 cm) cell sizes.

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To be explicit, consider the power (P) generated by a solar cell under "one-sun" illumination at the earth's surface, which corresponds to a peak solar irradiance Q=1000 Watts/m. The cell power can be expressed as a function of the open-circuit voltage

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the most suitable for CPV. Non-imaging optics is often used for various lighting applications. In order to achieve high efficiency, glass with high transmission is required and proper manufacturing process needs to be used to ensure shape precision.

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technology used in the field of concentrator photovoltaics that produces usable heat and electricity within the same system. CPVT at high concentrations of over 100 suns (HCPVT) utilizes similar components as HCPV, including dual-axis tracking and

460:(DNI) solar radiation; complete systems that apply to regions, such as areas of the U.S. Northeast and Midwest, that have low DNI solar radiation or high diffuse solar radiation; and concepts that seek partial solutions to technology challenges." 202:

in Albuquerque, New Mexico was the site for most of the early work, with the first modern-like photovoltaic concentrating system produced there late in the decade. Their first system was a linear-trough concentrator system that used a point focus

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Several HCPVT system providers are listed in the following table. Nearly all are early demonstration systems which have been in service for under five years as of 2015. Collected thermal power is typically 1.5x-2x the rated electrical power.

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mechanical system that is subjected to the stresses of varying movements and loads. Economical procedures for periodic realignment and maintenance of the tracker may thus be required to preserve system performance over its expected lifetime.

143:) possess the highest efficiency of all existing PV technologies, achieving near 40% for production modules and 30% for systems. They enable a smaller photovoltaic array that has the potential to reduce land use, waste heat and material, and 1412:

is typically low enough that the cells do not need to be actively cooled. For standard solar modules, there is also modeling and experimental evidence that no tracking or cooling modifications are needed if the concentration level is low

1592:-type temperature dependence. The system receiver must therefore provide for highly efficient and uniform cell cooling through sufficiently robust active and/or passive methods. In addition to material and design limitations in receiver 696: 3416:

Fernández, Eduardo F.; Almonacid, F.; Ruiz-Arias, J.A.; Soria-Moya, A. (August 2014). "Analysis of the spectral variations on the performance of high concentrator photovoltaic modules operating under different real climate conditions".

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coming years. In 2022, researchers at Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE in Freiburg, Germany, demonstrated a four-junction concentrator solar cell with an efficiency of 47.6% under 665-fold sunlight concentration. The

4331: 1487:, and added engineering & operational complexities (in comparison to zero and low-concentration PV technologies) make long-life performance a critical demonstration goal for the first generations of CPV technologies. Performance 1743:=20 °C, & Wind speed=2 m/s, and may include adjustments for inverter efficiency, higher/lower solar resource, and other facility-specific factors. The largest CPV power plant currently in operation is of 138 MW 852: 241:(MW), less than 0.2% of the global installed capacity of 230,000 MW. Commercial HCPV systems reached instantaneous ("spot") efficiencies of up to 42% under standard test conditions (with concentration levels above 400) and the 1307:/FF by an even larger percentage below unity than the tabulated values shown above. To prevent irreversible damage, the rise in cell operating temperature under concentration must be controlled with the use of a suitable 4672:

Espinet-Gonzalez, P; Algora, C; Nunez, N; Orlando, V; Vazquez, M; Bautista, J; Araki, K (2013), "Evaluation of the reliability of commercial concentrator triple-junction solar cells by means of accelerated life tests",

4291: 762: 234:. MJ cell efficiencies have improved from 34% (3-junctions) to 46% (4-junctions) at research-scale production levels. A substantial number of multi-MW CPV projects have also been commissioned worldwide since 2010. 605: 1524:

application under its broader range of actual – and occasionally unanticipated – operating conditions. Reliability of these complex systems is therefore assessed in the field, and is improved through aggressive

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Andrews, R.W.; Pollard, A.; Pearce, J.M., "Photovoltaic System Performance Enhancement With Nontracking Planar Concentrators: Experimental Results and Bidirectional Reflectance Function (BDRF)-Based Modeling,"

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and temperatures which arise under sunlight concentration may be challenging to prevent from degrading the cell's I-V properties or, worse, causing permanent physical damage. Such effects can reduce the ratio

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Ermer, JH; Jones, RK; Hebert, P; Pien, P; King, RR; Bhusari, D; Brandt, R; Al-Taher, O; Fetzer, C; Kinsey, GS; Karam, N (2012), "Status of C3MJ+ and C4MJ Production Concentrator Solar Cells at Spectrolab",

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world accounted for a total installed capacity of 350 MW. Field data collected from a diversity of installations since about 2010 is also benchmarking system reliability over the long term.

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Modern CPV systems operate most efficiently in highly concentrated sunlight (i.e. concentration levels equivalent to hundreds of suns), as long as the solar cell is kept cool through the use of

5559: 4896: 4607: 4934: 1145:{\displaystyle \eta _{\chi }=\eta \times {P_{\chi } \over \chi P}=\eta \times \left({1+{kT \over q}}{\ln(\chi ) \over V_{\mathrm {oc} }}\right)\times \left({FF_{\chi } \over FF}\right),} 516:. This is because, along with a proportional increase in the generated current, there also occurs a logarithmic enhancement in operating voltage, in response to the higher illumination. 5813: 908: 301:) irradiance data have concluded that conventional PV should still perform better over time than presently available CPV technology in most regions of the world (see for example ). 4915: 2639:(PPA), government assistance programs, and innovative financing schemes are also helping potential manufacturers and users to mitigate the risks of early CPVT technology adoption. 4953: 4877: 3214: 3137: 4091: 210:

focusing on water-cooled silicon cells and two axis tracking. Cell cooling with a passive heat sink and use of silicone-on-glass Fresnel lenses was demonstrated in 1979 by the

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Low concentration PV are systems with a solar concentration of 2–100 suns. For economic reasons, conventional or modified silicon solar cells are typically used. The heat

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systems which may be designed to function at temperatures in excess of several hundred degrees. More specifically, the cells are fabricated from a layering of thin-film

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A low concentrating solar device that includes its own internal tracker, is in development by ISP Solar which will enhance the efficiency of solar cell at low cost.

5010: 3724: 616: 2314: 5538: 2646:. As such, longer-term viability of the technical and/or business approach being pursued by any individual system provider is typically speculative. Notably, the 3544:"Fraunhofer ISE Led Consortium Achieves 41.4% Module Efficiency For Concentrator Photovoltaics Using Multi-Junction Solar Cells In European Union Funded Project" 3176: 3105: 2379: 7137: 6814: 5738: 3672: 3626: 1429:

From concentrations of 100 to 300 suns, the CPV systems require two-axis solar tracking and cooling (whether passive or active), which makes them more complex.

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Greater potential for efficiency increase in the future compared to single-junction flat plate systems could lead to greater improvements in land area use,

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Jo, Jin Ho; Waszak, Ryan; Shawgo, Michael (2014). "Feasibility of Concentrated Photovoltaic Systems (CPV) in Various United States Geographic Locations".

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should then have similar values that are both near unity, corresponding to high shunt resistance and very low series resistance (<1 milliohm).

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into three categories: complete systems that cost effectively integrate micro-CPV for regions such as sunny areas of the U.S. southwest that have high

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system in Las Vegas, US, consists of thousands of small Fresnel lenses, each focusing sunlight to ~500X higher intensity onto a tiny, high-efficiency

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in Southern Europe. CPV and CSP are often confused with one another, despite being intrinsically different technologies from the start: CPV uses the

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Keith Emery and Carl Osterwald (1987). "Measurement of photovoltaic device current as a function of voltage, temperature, intensity and spectrum".

1540:. Significant growth in the deployment of CPV can be anticipated once the concerns are better addressed to build confidence in system bankability. 198:

Research into concentrator photovoltaics has taken place since the mid 1970s, initially spurred on by the energy shock from a mideast oil embargo.

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Upon increased illumination of the cell at "χ-suns", corresponding to concentration (χ) and irradiance (χQ), there can be similarly expressed:

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Santos, Jose J.C.S.; Palacio, Jose C.E.; Reyes, Arnaldo M.M.; Carvalho, Monica; Friere, Alberto J.R.; Barone, Marcelo A. (February 16, 2018).

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Kinsey, G. S.; Bagienski, W.; Nayak, A.; Liu, M.; Gordon, R.; Garboushian, V. (2013-04-01). "Advancing Efficiency and Scale in CPV Arrays".

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To produce equal or greater energy per rated watt than conventional PV systems, CPV systems must be located in areas that receive plentiful

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Note that the unitless fill factor for a "high quality" solar cell typically ranges 0.75–0.9 and can, in practice, depend primarily on the

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costs. The rate of annual CPV installations peaked in 2012 and has fallen to near zero since 2018 with the faster price drop in

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Past Experiences and New Challenges of PV Concentrators, G Sala and A Luque, Springer Series in Optical Sciences 130, 1, (2007)

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years as of 2015, and similar systems are being produced by Absolicon and Idhelio at 10x and 50x concentration, respectively.

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Power output of MJ solar cells is more sensitive to shifts in radiation spectra caused by changing atmospheric conditions.

182:– uses the heat from the sun's radiation in order to make steam to drive a turbine, that then produces electricity using a 6906: 5779: 5295: 3973: 1822: 4796: 4399: 2531:. A fluid actively cools the integrated thermal–photovoltaic receiver, and simultaneously transports the collected heat. 7193: 7173: 6553: 6312: 6187: 5008: 3720: 2598: 1520: 1385:

CPV systems are categorized according to the amount of their solar concentration, measured in "suns" (the square of the

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generator to provide electricity on demand operated in 2023 in Australia, at a combined 4 MW power and 51 MWh storage.

7083: 6558: 6243: 5534: 5070: 2166: 255: 242: 5734: 4719:"Evaluation of the reliability of high concentrator GaAs solar cells by means of temperature accelerated aging tests" 3622: 3668: 7093: 6946: 6935: 6809: 6656: 6614: 6594: 3597: 3246: 2298: 1460: 218:. The 350 kW SOLERAS project in Saudi Arabia – the largest until many years later – was constructed by Sandia/ 5478: 5244: 5219: 5194: 5169: 5141: 5116: 5091: 4575:. In: Handbook of Concentrator Photovoltaic Technology, C. Algora and I. Rey-Stolle editors, 2016, Pages 293-333, 2642:

CPVT equipment offerings ranging from low (LCPVT) to high (HCPVT) concentration are now being deployed by several

293:) greater than 5.5-6m kWh/m/day or 2000 kWh/m/yr. Otherwise, evaluations of annualized DNI vs. GNI/GHI ( 6507: 6482: 6322: 5453: 5428: 5403: 5273: 2031: 1577: 1562: 1455: 1340: 279: 227: 204: 53: 6137: 3895: 7247: 7008: 6990: 6881: 6727: 6714: 6709: 6609: 3348: 3022: 2988: 2636: 1585: 187: 159: 31: 874: 282:. These CPV features lead to rapid decreases in power output when atmospheric conditions are less than ideal. 6032: 3998:"Fraunhofer ISE Develops the World's Most Efficient Solar Cell with 47.6 Percent Efficiency - Fraunhofer ISE" 1445:

High concentration photovoltaics (HCPV) systems employ concentrating optics consisting of dish reflectors or

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Smaller cell sizes could prevent large fluctuations in module price due to variations in semiconductor prices

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CPVT may currently be economical for niche markets having all of the following application characteristics:

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This 240 x 80 mm 1,000 suns CPV heat sink design thermal animation, was created using high resolution

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Model of Loss Mechanisms for Low Optical Concentration on Solar Photovoltaic Arrays with Planar Reflectors

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Burhan, M; Shahzad, MW; Choon, NK (2018), "Compact CPV-hydrogen system to convert sunlight to hydrogen",

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Spencer, M; Kearney, A; Bowman, J (2012), "Compact CPV-hydrogen system to convert sunlight to hydrogen",

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mounting inaccuracies, and capable of providing uniform illumination of the cell. All these reasons make

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Additional use of waste heat possible for systems with active cooling possible (e.g.large mirror systems)

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Cole, IR; Betts, TR; Gottschalg, R (2012), "Solar profiles and spectral modeling for CPV simulations",

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Current Status of CPV report, January 2015. Table 2: Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of CPV.

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International CPV-x Conference - Historical Participation Statistics. Data Source - CPV-x Proceedings

263: 259: 247: 6057: 3967:"Opportunities and Challenges for Development of a Mature Concentrating Photovoltaic Power Industry" 2538:

operate within a closed thermal loop. To maintain efficient overall operation and avoid damage from

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Limited market – can only be used in regions with high DNI, cannot be easily installed on rooftops

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Gray, Jeffery (2003), "The Physics of the Solar Cell", in Luque, Antonio; Hegedus, Steven (eds.),

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conditions that may be useful to uncover some predominantly infant and early life (<1–2 year)

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sun"). System-level AC efficiencies are in the range of 25–28%. CPV installations are located in

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The efficiency under concentration is then given in terms of χ and the cell characteristics as:

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analysis, and shows temperature contoured heat sink surface and flow trajectories as predicted.

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modules at >800x concentration. A 41.4% module efficiency was announced at the end of 2018.

6804: 6799: 6732: 6528: 6467: 6398: 6388: 5763: 5702: 4814: 4768: 4738: 4700: 4647: 4584: 4547: 4495: 4442: 4367: 4246: 4161: 4126: 4040: 3874: 3837: 3814: 3771: 3390: 3319: 3281: 1529: 1496: 1492: 1357: 691:{\displaystyle P_{\chi }=I_{\mathrm {\chi sc} }\times V_{\mathrm {\chi oc} }\times FF_{\chi }} 457: 415: 318:

HCPV cannot utilize diffuse radiation. LCPV can only utilize a fraction of diffuse radiation.

286: 144: 5619:"SRP and SunPower Dedicate Completed C7 Tracker Solar Power System at ASU Polytechnic Campus" 6861: 6829: 6819: 6290: 5694: 5657: 4855: 4730: 4690: 4639: 4576: 4537: 4529: 4487: 4432: 4359: 4238: 4032: 3866: 3806: 3763: 3461: 3426: 3382: 3273: 2616: 2551: 1706: 1664: 1537: 513: 298: 294: 290: 3569: 6773: 6704: 5618: 5014: 4995: 4976: 4957: 4938: 4919: 4900: 4881: 4465: 4338: 4328: 4295: 4208: 4067: 3253: 3175:. International Energy Agency - Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 2014. Archived from 3026: 2643: 2539: 1484: 1299: 1156: 219: 4969:

Eric Wesoff, "CPV Hopeful Soitec Latest Victim of the Economics of Silicon Photovoltaics

4533: 3313:"The Promise of Concentrators, R M Swanson, Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 8, 93-111 (2000)" 1450:

must be passive, otherwise the power required for active cooling will reduce the overall

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under concentration approaches 65% for 5 junctions, which is a likely practical maximum.

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to operate more efficiently in concentrated light than they do under a nominal level of

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factors – such as the frequent system thermal cycling – further reduce the practical T

847:{\displaystyle \quad V_{\mathrm {\chi oc} }=V_{\mathrm {oc} }+{kT \over q}\ln(\chi ).} 7264: 6845: 6768: 6758: 6671: 6563: 6280: 6259: 4559: 3810: 3767: 3473: 2980: 2559: 2555: 1593: 1549: 1488: 1480: 1418: 1402: 1386: 1316: 505: 171: 129: 117: 113: 75: 6208: 5671: 4750: 4659: 4379: 4260: 3402: 2631:

access to backup sources of power or cost-efficient storage (electrical and thermal)

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Increased and stable energy production throughout the day due to (two-axis) tracking

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Use of mirror or lens assemblies to generate current from multi-junction solar cells

7213: 7168: 6901: 6573: 5836:"The Australian solar tech that may have found a low cost solution to deep storage" 4893:

Eric Wesoff, "CPV: Amonix Founder Speaks, Blames VCs, Laments Lack of Supply Chain

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New generation technologies, without a history of production (thus increased risk)

207: 105: 5953: 6111: 5322:"Invenergy Announces Start of Operation Of Desert Green Solar Farm in California" 4643: 4363: 4116: 3857:

Yupeng Xing; et al. (2015). "A review of concentrator silicon solar cells".

3465: 3430: 3386: 1569:) of HCPV systems are limited to less than about 110 °C on account of their 7208: 7178: 7153: 6911: 6548: 6523: 4931:

Eric Wesoff, "Rest in Peace: The List of Deceased Solar Companies, 2009 to 2013

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The efficiencies of a cell of area (A) under one-sun and χ-suns are defined as:

342:

May require frequent cleaning to mitigate soiling losses, depending on the site

125: 4580: 4084:

High-efficiency multi-junction solar cells: current status and future potential

3870: 155:(MW), less than 0.2% of the global installed capacity of 230,000 MW that year. 6694: 6666: 6444: 4789: 4392: 4242: 3966: 3277: 2956: 1352: 861:

for the particular cell construction. For concentrator applications, FF and FF

275: 163: 6183: 5762:. In: Reliability Theory and Practice, 1963 (reprinted 2004), Pages 176-185, 4742: 4704: 4651: 4551: 4499: 4446: 4371: 3878: 3818: 3775: 3394: 2458: 2444: 2395: 2381: 2330: 2316: 1311:. Additionally, the cell design itself must incorporate features that reduce 226:

failed to favor the system-level economics of CPV. The introduction of III-V

162:(CSP) as both technologies are suited best for areas with high direct normal 6985: 6891: 6763: 5698: 4122: 2974: 2724: 2575: 2550:(TES). The captured thermal energy may nevertheless be directly employed in 2523: 1695: 1688: 1533: 1332: 1320: 1308: 493:

since 1975. As of December 2014, best lab cell efficiency reached 46% (for

382:

Potential double use of land e.g. for agriculture, low environmental impact

5593:"SunPower's C7 Tracker System in 6 MW Solar Farm at Tucson Electric Power" 5062: 4950:

Eric Wesoff, "Soitec, SunPower and Suncore: The Last CPV Vendors Standing

4912:

Eric Wesoff, "CPV Startup SolFocus Joins List of Deceased Solar Companies

1687:

Similar to traditional PV, the peak DC rating of a system is specified as

1588:

having intrinsic lifetimes during operation that rapidly decrease with an

1397: 757:{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {\chi sc} }=\chi \times I_{\mathrm {sc} }\quad } 358:

Strong cost decrease of competing technologies for electricity production

7198: 7188: 7163: 6133: 4874:

Eric Wesoff, "Amonix Plant Closure: Death Rattle for CPV Solar Industry?

4300:

40th American Solar Energy Society National Solar Conference Proceedings,

2353: 238: 178:

to directly generate electricity from sunlight, while CSP – often called

167: 152: 108:

technology that generates electricity from sunlight. Unlike conventional

4542: 3601: 7203: 5482: 5248: 5223: 5198: 5173: 5145: 5120: 5095: 4036: 1401:

An example of a Low Concentration PV Cell's surface, showing the glass

42: 5457: 5432: 5407: 5269: 4860: 4835: 4695: 4437: 1724:

62670 standard convention. The AC production capacity is specified as

1163:

population of electrons – such as that flowing through a solar cell's

5662: 5645: 4734: 4717:

C, Nunez; N, Gonzalez; JR, Vazquez; P, Algora; C, Espinet, P (2013),

3267: 1668: 1324: 1187:/FF=1; an assumption which is clarified in the following discussion. 600:{\displaystyle P=I_{\mathrm {sc} }\times V_{\mathrm {oc} }\times FF.} 452: 132:

and sometimes a cooling system to further increase their efficiency.

79: 49: 4202:

A Strategic Research Agenda for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Technology

3352: 3019: 1368:

of nonimaging optics avoid the need for active solar tracking. For

1191:

Theoretical Cell Efficiency Increase Due to Sunlight Concentration

6028: 2625:

high and constant demand for low-temperature (<80 °C) heat

2592: 1678: 1431: 1396: 439: 4834:

Gerstmaier, T; Zech, T; Rottger, M; Braun, C; Gombert, A (2015).

151:

photovoltaics. In 2016, cumulative CPV installations reached 350

6228: 5378: 2622:

tight space constraints for placement of a solar collector array

1409: 6232: 334:

Tracking with sufficient accuracy and reliability is required.

3099:"Current Status of Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) Technology" 3092: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3074: 1627:

Cumulative CPV Installations in MW by country by November 2014

962:{\displaystyle \quad \eta _{\chi }={P_{\chi } \over \chi QA}.} 6053: 5810:"ARENA boosts funding for RayGen's "solar hydro" power plant" 3160: 3158: 5878: 5646:"Modeling of concentrating photovoltaic and thermal systems" 5007:

Eric Wesoff, "Is Time Running Out for CPV Startup Semprius?

4571:

Ignacio Luque-Heredia, Pedro Magalhães, and Matthew Muller,

4478:

Gupta, R (2013), "CPV: Expansion and Bankability Required",

4226:

Andrews, Rob W.; Pollard, Andrew; Pearce, Joshua M. (2013).

1604:

compatible with long system life to below about 80 °C.

1373: 6158: 6078: 4790:"Reliability Testing the Die-Attach of CPV Cell Assemblies" 3746:

D. L. Pulfrey (1978). "On the fill factor of solar cells".

2246: 1919: 5903: 5857: 4988:

Eric Wesoff, "CPV Hopeful Soitec Exits the Solar Business

4718: 3518: 4836:"Large-scale and long-term CPV power plant field results" 4235:

2013 IEEE 39th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC)

3000:

Concentrated photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors

6003: 5780:"RayGen focuses its energies on vast storage potential" 5644:

Helmers, H.; Bett, A.W.; Parisi, J.; Agert, C. (2014).

1459:

solar cells, originally designed for non-concentrating

230:

starting in the early 2000s has since provided a clear

3836:(Third ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 183–184. 339:

No cooling water required for passively cooled systems

74:

Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) modules on dual axis

5691:

Advances in Renewable Energies and Power Technologies

5296:"Guascor Foton's Navarra and Murcia CPV Power Plants" 3266:

López, Antonio Luque; Andreev, Viacheslav M. (2007).

3041: 3039: 3037: 3035: 1639:

Yearly Installed CPV Capacity in MW from 2002 to 2015

981: 916: 877: 770: 710: 619: 545: 5650:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

4604:"CPV Trackers: A Crucial Aspect of Project Success?" 4287:

Rob Andrews, Nabeil Alazzam, and Joshua M. Pearce, "

3209: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3197: 1651:

Yearly Installed PV Capacity in GW from 2002 to 2015

7146: 7130: 7121: 6999: 6968: 6945: 6934: 6854: 6838: 6792: 6751: 6649: 6642: 6587: 6516: 6443: 6432: 6407: 6361: 6273: 6266: 3834:

Microelectronic circuits : analysis and design

2650:of startups can vary widely in their attention to 1659:HCPV manufacturing facilities: including those of 1144: 961: 902: 846: 756: 690: 599: 237:In 2016, cumulative CPV installations reached 350 4221: 4219: 4118:Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition 4002:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE 3657:, London: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 61–112 3655:Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering 315:High efficiencies under direct normal irradiance 214:Project at the Institute of Solar Energy of the 120:to focus sunlight onto small, highly efficient, 3047:"Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy" 1155:where the term kT/q is the voltage (called the 3220:. Fraunhofer ISE. 28 July 2014. Archived from 289:. This is typically specified as average DNI ( 7138:List of countries by photovoltaics production 6815:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One 6244: 5760:Chapter 18: Reliability Design Considerations 3896:"Data Sheet-Spectrolab C3P5 39.5% Solar Cell" 3343: 3341: 3339: 1369: 8: 4819:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4773:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4027:; Collin, Stéphane; Sellers, Ian R. (eds.). 6620:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 5560:"Fort Churchill Solar Project - Fact Sheet" 3960: 3958: 3931:"Data Sheet-Spectrolab C4MJ 40% Solar Cell" 1747:rating located in Golmud, China, hosted by 7127: 6942: 6646: 6493:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 6440: 6270: 6251: 6237: 6229: 5164: 5162: 4598: 4596: 3648: 3646: 3644: 1737:concentrator standard operating conditions 1683:Field testing a system at a CPV powerplant 1528:cycles which are guided by the results of 323:Low cost per watt of manufacturing capital 5661: 5025: 5023: 4859: 4694: 4541: 4436: 3592: 3590: 1118: 1108: 1084: 1083: 1060: 1044: 1037: 1007: 1001: 986: 980: 937: 931: 922: 915: 884: 876: 811: 798: 797: 777: 776: 769: 743: 742: 716: 715: 709: 682: 659: 658: 638: 637: 624: 618: 575: 574: 557: 556: 544: 6955:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system 3859:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 3669:"PV Education - Average Solar Radiation" 3419:Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 3247:How CPV trumps CSP in high DNI locations 3097:Fraunhofer ISE and NREL (January 2015). 2668: 2258: 1931: 1836:in Touwsrivier/Western Cape/South Africa 1753: 1189: 903:{\displaystyle \eta ={P \over QA}\quad } 484: 303: 6922:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge 6917:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge 5687:"Chapter 12: Concentrating Solar Power" 3972:. www.nrel.gov. p. 5 (PDF: p. 8). 3925: 3923: 3890: 3888: 3018:500x concentration ratio is claimed at 3011: 2534:Typically, one or more receivers and a 1860:in Alamosa, Colorado/San Luis Valley/US 859:equivalent shunt and series resistances 449:number of specific technology thrusts. 5715:from the original on September 7, 2021 5324:. Solar Power World. 8 December 2014. 4812: 4766: 4459:Concentrated Photovoltaics Update 2014 4063: 4052: 3695:"PV Education - Solar Cell Efficiency" 2504:Concentrator photovoltaics and thermal 2493:Concentrated photovoltaics and thermal 1364:For very low concentrations, the wide 280:multi-junction (MJ) photovoltaic cells 5834:Parkinson, Giles (8 September 2023). 5625:from the original on October 24, 2021 3136:. Fraunhofer ISE. 16 September 2020. 2255:List of LCPV systems in United States 1928:List of HCPV systems in United States 1906:in Villafranca/Navarra province/Spain 1703:concentrator standard test conditions 398:Opportunities for local manufacturing 128:. In addition, CPV systems often use 7: 7243: 5854:"Cogenra, acquired by Sunpower 2016" 5735:"ADAM (Advanced Dense Array Module)" 5599:from the original on August 17, 2018 5565:. greentechmedia.com. Archived from 5276:from the original on 20 January 2019 5043:from the original on 24 October 2021 4610:from the original on 13 January 2019 4573:Chapter 6: CPV Tracking and Trackers 4534:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.12.094 3943:from the original on 19 January 2019 3908:from the original on 20 January 2019 3550:from the original on 7 February 2019 170:region in the United States and the 6960:List of photovoltaic power stations 5979:"Gianluca Ambrosetti 2014 TED Talk" 5031:"ESTCP Cost and Performance Report" 4468:, GlobalData Market Research Report 393:Lack of technology standardization 6976:Rooftop photovoltaic power station 6379:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si) 6328:Third-generation photovoltaic cell 5591:Eric Wesoff (September 14, 2012). 4788:N. Bosco, C. Sweet, and S. Kurtz. 3629:from the original on 11 March 2020 3143:from the original on 9 August 2014 1544:Tracker durability and maintenance 1530:accelerated component/system aging 1331:Including such features, the best 1088: 1085: 802: 799: 784: 781: 747: 744: 723: 720: 666: 663: 645: 642: 579: 576: 561: 558: 532:(FF) of the cell's characteristic 366:Bankability and perception issues 25: 6981:Building-integrated photovoltaics 6478:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics 6384:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) 5328:from the original on 6 March 2019 5302:from the original on 30 June 2018 4393:"IEC 61215: What it is and isn't" 3166:"Snapshot of Global PV 1992-2013" 2529:multi-junction photovoltaic cells 2499:Concentrated photovoltaic thermal 1336:multi-junction photovoltaic cells 390:High potential for cost reduction 7242: 7231: 7230: 6353:Polarizing organic photovoltaics 4322:doi:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2015.2478064 4212:Photovoltaic technology platform 3727:from the original on May 8, 2019 3701:from the original on May 8, 2019 3675:from the original on May 8, 2019 2973: 2959: 2140:Victor Valley College Solar Farm 2113:Crafton Hills College Solar Farm 2086:Newberry Springs CPV Power Plant 1812:in Golmud/Qinghai province/China 1739:(CSOC) of DNI=900 W/m, AM1.5D, T 1644: 1632: 1620: 436:Ongoing research and development 137:high-concentration photovoltaics 67: 41: 6488:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics 6369:List of semiconductor materials 6215:from the original on 2016-02-22 6190:from the original on 2016-03-14 6165:from the original on 2018-03-17 6140:from the original on 2015-04-18 6104:"Zenith Solar Projects - Yavne" 6085:from the original on 2019-07-02 6060:from the original on 2015-11-19 6035:from the original on 2017-12-27 6010:from the original on 2019-04-15 5985:from the original on 2015-05-19 5960:from the original on 2015-04-18 5935:from the original on 2015-04-18 5910:from the original on 2014-06-30 5885:from the original on 2016-03-15 5816:from the original on 2021-02-03 5790:from the original on 2021-01-23 5741:from the original on 2015-02-22 5541:from the original on 2019-01-19 5385:from the original on 2019-01-14 5360:from the original on 2019-01-07 5073:from the original on 2019-01-24 4802:from the original on 2016-12-29 4757:from the original on 2019-11-25 4405:from the original on 2017-02-15 4270:from the original on 2020-03-10 4184:from the original on 2021-10-06 4178:"Solar power plants | EcoGlass" 4139:from the original on 2016-02-18 4097:from the original on 2017-08-08 3979:from the original on 2021-10-24 3623:"The next big solar technology" 3576:from the original on 2018-08-13 3525:from the original on 2019-07-13 3500:from the original on 2017-01-23 3349:"The CPV Consortium - Projects" 3294:from the original on 2021-10-24 2681:Unit size in kW 2586:with TES using an accompanying 2059:University of Arizona CPV Array 1884:in Hami/Xinjiang province/China 1341:theoretical limiting efficiency 1178:The efficiency enhancement of η 917: 899: 771: 753: 524:), the short-circuit current (I 6600:Incremental conductance method 6394:Copper indium gallium selenide 6343:Thermodynamic efficiency limit 5693:. Elsevier. pp. 373–402. 3446:Energy Technology & Policy 2995:Luminescent solar concentrator 2518:) or hybrid thermal CPV, is a 1576:limitation. This contrasts to 1075: 1069: 838: 832: 701:where, as shown by reference: 216:Technical University of Madrid 166:, which are also known as the 1: 6907:South African Solar Challenge 4632:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 4492:10.1016/s1755-0084(13)70064-4 4352:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 4318:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 3488:"MOSAIC Project Descriptions" 3375:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 2628:high cost of grid electricity 2574:mounted on a high-efficiency 2512:combined heat and power solar 1586:III-V semiconductor materials 6554:Photovoltaic mounting system 5689:. In Yahyaoui, Imene (ed.). 4644:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2011.2180893 4364:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2011.2177445 3832:Rashid, Muhammad H. (2016). 3811:10.1016/0379-6787(87)90130-X 3768:10.1016/0038-1101(78)90021-7 3721:"PV Education - Fill Factor" 3466:10.1080/23317000.2014.971982 3431:10.1016/j.solmat.2014.04.026 3387:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2012.2227992 2433: 2430: 2370: 2367: 2305: 2302: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2099:Newberry Springs, California 2095: 2092: 2089: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2014: 2011: 2008: 1987: 1984: 1981: 1902: 1899: 1896: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1856: 1853: 1850: 1832: 1829: 1826: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1675:List of largest HCPV systems 1557:Receiver temperature control 1461:PV on space-based satellites 1441:High concentration PV (HCPV) 500:concentrator, 4+ junctions). 331:Low temperature coefficients 299:Global Horizontal Irradiance 200:Sandia National Laboratories 158:HCPV directly competes with 60:is parked beneath for scale. 6559:Maximum power point tracker 5808:Blake Matich (2020-03-20). 5621:. SunPower. April 5, 2013. 4514:Applied Thermal Engineering 4320:5(6), pp.1626-1635 (2015). 3052:. IEA. 2014. Archived from 2167:Eubank Landfill Solar Array 2018:Borrego Springs, California 1393:Low concentration PV (LCPV) 1167:– and has a value of about 468:usable heat co-generation. 243:International Energy Agency 102:concentration photovoltaics 98:concentrating photovoltaics 7287: 6810:Solar panels on spacecraft 6657:Solar-powered refrigerator 6615:Concentrated photovoltaics 6595:Perturb and observe method 6374:Crystalline silicon (c-Si) 4840:AIP Conference Proceedings 4675:AIP Conference Proceedings 4581:10.1002/9781118755655.ch06 4425:AIP Conference Proceedings 3871:10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.035 2934: 2931: 2915: 2912: 2896: 2893: 2860: 2851: 2835: 2832: 2816: 2813: 2797: 2794: 2778: 2775: 2759: 2756: 2719: 2716: 2496: 2299:Fort Churchill Solar Array 1456:Multi-junction solar cells 1436:A 10×10 mm HCPV solar cell 478: 228:Multi-junction solar cells 180:concentrated solar thermal 90:Concentrator photovoltaics 29: 7226: 6508:Heterojunction solar cell 6483:Dye-sensitized solar cell 6323:Multi-junction solar cell 6313:Nominal power (Watt-peak) 5270:"Parques Solares Navarra" 4723:Progress in Photovoltaics 4243:10.1109/PVSC.2013.6744136 3278:10.1007/978-3-540-68798-6 2686: 2680: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2510:), also sometimes called 2428:ASU Polytechnic CPV Array 2244: 2032:Hatch Solar Energy Center 1917: 1565:operating temperatures (T 1563:multi-junction solar cell 1532:, performance monitoring 425: 54:multi-junction solar cell 18:Concentrator photovoltaic 6991:Strasskirchen Solar Park 6882:American Solar Challenge 6728:Solar-powered flashlight 6715:Solar-powered calculator 6710:Solar cell phone charger 6399:Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 5784:www.ecogeneration.com.au 2989:Concentrated solar power 2637:power purchase agreement 2617:direct normal irradiance 2365:Springerville Solar Farm 1720:=25 °C, as per the 1298:In practice, the higher 458:Direct Normal Irradiance 355:Modular – kW to GW scale 295:Global Normal Irradiance 291:Direct Normal Irradiance 160:concentrated solar power 32:concentrated solar power 30:Not to be confused with 6897:Frisian Solar Challenge 6867:List of solar car teams 6625:Space-based solar power 6605:Constant voltage method 6534:Solar charge controller 6420:Timeline of solar cells 6415:Growth of photovoltaics 5699:10.1016/C2016-0-04518-7 4160:, Academic Press, 2004 4156:Roland Winston et al., 4081:N.V.Yastrebova (2007). 3748:Solid State Electronics 2967:Renewable energy portal 2652:reliability engineering 2648:minimum viable products 2180:Albuquerque, New Mexico 2153:Victorville, California 2005:Desert Green Solar Farm 1823:Touwsrivier CPV Project 1425:Medium concentration PV 1351:All CPV systems have a 6887:Formula Sun Grand Prix 6719:Solar-powered fountain 6662:Solar air conditioning 6463:Quantum dot solar cell 6453:Nanocrystal solar cell 6348:Sun-free photovoltaics 6110:. 2011. Archived from 5595:. greentechmedia.com. 4480:Renewable Energy Focus 4237:. pp. 0229–0234. 4115:Chaves, Julio (2015). 4062:Cite journal requires 3215:"Photovoltaics Report" 3131:"Photovoltaics Report" 2757:Airlight Energy/dsolar 2606:Demonstration projects 2602: 2548:thermal energy storage 2459:33.29361°N 111.67722°W 2396:34.29444°N 109.27139°W 2374:Springerville, Arizona 2331:39.12806°N 119.14000°W 2232:Fort Irwin, California 2220:Fort Irwin CPV Project 1684: 1437: 1405: 1146: 963: 904: 848: 758: 692: 601: 501: 445: 186:. As of 2012, CSP was 6877:World Solar Challenge 6700:Photovoltaic keyboard 6630:PV system performance 6503:Perovskite solar cell 6301:Solar cell efficiency 5537:. 22 September 2013. 2596: 2588:organic Rankine cycle 2421:Tucson Electric Power 2358:Apple Inc./ NV Energy 2194:Questa Solar Facility 2159:Victor Valley College 2132:Crafton Hills College 1978:Alamosa Solar Project 1847:Alamosa Solar Project 1749:Suncore Photovoltaics 1682: 1452:conversion efficiency 1435: 1400: 1171:at room temperature ( 1147: 964: 905: 849: 759: 693: 602: 504:According to theory, 491:solar cell efficiency 488: 481:Solar cell efficiency 443: 7147:Individual producers 6855:Solar vehicle racing 6544:Solar micro-inverter 6473:Plasmonic solar cell 6318:Thin-film solar cell 6286:Photoelectric effect 4606:. 3 September 2012. 4304:free and open access 3546:. 23 November 2018. 2464:33.29361; -111.67722 2401:34.29444; -109.27139 2342:Fort Churchill Solar 2336:39.12806; -119.14000 1910:Amonix-Guascor Foton 1417:crystalline silicon 979: 914: 875: 768: 708: 617: 543: 489:Reported records of 418:costs, and BOP costs 110:photovoltaic systems 6743:Solar traffic light 6723:Solar-powered radio 6690:Solar-powered watch 6498:Printed solar panel 6333:Solar cell research 6209:"Solergy Cogen CPV" 4922:, 05 September 2013 4852:2015AIPC.1679c0002G 4687:2013AIPC.1556..222E 4526:2018AppTE.132..154B 4302:pp. 446-453 (2011). 3803:1987SoCe...21..313E 3760:1978SSEle..21..519P 3625:. 6 February 2020. 3458:2014EneTP...1...84J 3182:on 30 November 2014 3111:on 11 February 2017 2839:Large trough + lens 2454: / 2391: / 2326: / 2126:Yucaipa, California 1596:performance, other 1526:product development 1192: 373:energy payback time 176:photovoltaic effect 149:crystalline silicon 6779:The Quiet Achiever 6738:Solar street light 6685:Solar-powered pump 6458:Organic solar cell 6338:Thermophotovoltaic 6306:Quantum efficiency 5013:2019-01-14 at the 4994:2019-01-19 at the 4979:, 22 December 2014 4975:2019-03-06 at the 4956:2015-03-12 at the 4941:, 01 December 2013 4937:2019-01-19 at the 4918:2019-01-15 at the 4899:2019-01-14 at the 4880:2019-01-14 at the 4464:2015-01-15 at the 4337:2017-11-22 at the 4327:2021-10-24 at the 4294:2021-10-24 at the 4207:2010-07-05 at the 4037:10.1117/12.3000352 3256:, 14 February 2012 3252:2014-11-22 at the 3025:2018-12-29 at the 2678:Concentrator type 2603: 2524:micro cogeneration 2407:Springerville LCPV 2247:The CPV Consortium 2207:Questa, New Mexico 1920:The CPV Consortium 1870:Hami (1, 2, and 3) 1685: 1438: 1406: 1190: 1142: 959: 900: 844: 754: 688: 597: 502: 446: 7258: 7257: 7222: 7221: 7117: 7116: 6930: 6929: 6805:Mauro Solar Riser 6800:Electric aircraft 6733:Solar-powered fan 6638: 6637: 6529:Balance of system 6517:System components 6468:Hybrid solar cell 6428: 6427: 6389:Cadmium telluride 6114:on April 15, 2011 6054:"Southwest Solar" 5929:"Airlight Energy" 5879:"Absolicon Solar" 5708:978-0-12-812959-3 5479:"Eubank Landfill" 5017:, 03 January 2017 4998:, 25 January 2015 4960:, 29 October 2014 4861:10.1063/1.4931506 4696:10.1063/1.4822236 4438:10.1063/1.4753884 4252:978-1-4799-3299-3 4158:Nonimaging Optics 4046:978-1-5106-7022-8 3287:978-3-540-68796-2 3272:. Vol. 130. 3173:www.iea-pvps.org/ 3059:on 1 October 2014 2950: 2949: 2635:Utilization of a 2490: 2489: 2309:Yerington, Nevada 2252: 2251: 2045:Hatch, New Mexico 1991:Alamosa, Colorado 1925: 1924: 1911: 1894:Navarra CPV Plant 1881: 1809: 1602:max receiver 1366:acceptance angles 1358:nonimaging optics 1300:current densities 1296: 1295: 1133: 1094: 1057: 1021: 954: 897: 824: 508:properties allow 433: 432: 145:balance of system 96:) (also known as 16:(Redirected from 7278: 7246: 7245: 7234: 7233: 7128: 6969:Building-mounted 6947:PV power station 6943: 6872:Solar challenges 6862:Solar car racing 6830:Solar Challenger 6820:Gossamer Penguin 6647: 6441: 6291:Solar irradiance 6271: 6253: 6246: 6239: 6230: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6220: 6205: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6195: 6180: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6170: 6155: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6145: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6100: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6090: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6065: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6041: 6040: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6016: 6015: 6000: 5994: 5993: 5991: 5990: 5975: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5965: 5950: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5940: 5925: 5919: 5918: 5916: 5915: 5900: 5894: 5893: 5891: 5890: 5875: 5869: 5868: 5866: 5865: 5856:. Archived from 5850: 5844: 5843: 5831: 5825: 5824: 5822: 5821: 5805: 5799: 5798: 5796: 5795: 5776: 5770: 5756: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5746: 5731: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5720: 5682: 5676: 5675: 5665: 5663:10.1002/pip.2287 5641: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5588: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5577: 5572:on July 14, 2015 5571: 5564: 5556: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5546: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5522: 5521: 5515: 5509:. Archived from 5508: 5500: 5494: 5493: 5491: 5490: 5481:. Archived from 5475: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5456:. Archived from 5450: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5440: 5431:. Archived from 5425: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5415: 5406:. Archived from 5400: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5375: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5365: 5359: 5352: 5344: 5338: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5318: 5312: 5311: 5309: 5307: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5283: 5281: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5256: 5247:. Archived from 5241: 5235: 5234: 5232: 5231: 5222:. Archived from 5216: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5206: 5197:. Archived from 5191: 5185: 5184: 5182: 5181: 5172:. Archived from 5166: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5153: 5144:. Archived from 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5128: 5119:. Archived from 5113: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5103: 5094:. Archived from 5088: 5082: 5081: 5079: 5078: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5042: 5035: 5027: 5018: 5005: 4999: 4986: 4980: 4967: 4961: 4948: 4942: 4929: 4923: 4910: 4904: 4891: 4885: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4831: 4825: 4824: 4818: 4810: 4808: 4807: 4801: 4795:. www.nrel.gov. 4794: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4772: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4735:10.1002/pip.2212 4729:(5): 1104–1113, 4714: 4708: 4707: 4698: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4626: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4600: 4591: 4569: 4563: 4562: 4545: 4509: 4503: 4502: 4475: 4469: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4440: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4411: 4410: 4404: 4397: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4347: 4341: 4313: 4307: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4275: 4269: 4232: 4223: 4214: 4199: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4174: 4168: 4154: 4148: 4147: 4145: 4144: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4103: 4102: 4096: 4089: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4065: 4060: 4058: 4050: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4009: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3984: 3978: 3971: 3962: 3953: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3942: 3935: 3927: 3918: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3907: 3900: 3892: 3883: 3882: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3829: 3823: 3822: 3797:(1–4): 313–327. 3786: 3780: 3779: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3691: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3650: 3639: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3610: 3609: 3600:. Archived from 3594: 3585: 3584: 3582: 3581: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3531: 3530: 3515: 3509: 3508: 3506: 3505: 3499: 3492: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3441: 3435: 3434: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3361: 3360: 3351:. Archived from 3345: 3334: 3333: 3331: 3330: 3324: 3318:. Archived from 3317: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3300: 3299: 3263: 3257: 3243: 3237: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3227:on 9 August 2014 3226: 3219: 3211: 3192: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3181: 3170: 3162: 3153: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3142: 3135: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3110: 3104:. Archived from 3103: 3094: 3069: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3058: 3051: 3043: 3030: 3016: 2983: 2978: 2977: 2969: 2964: 2963: 2938:Small lens array 2919:Small dish array 2900:Small lens array 2669: 2644:startup ventures 2560:air conditioning 2552:district heating 2478: 2477: 2475: 2474: 2473: 2471: 2466: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2452: 2451: 2450: 2447: 2415: 2414: 2412: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2403: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2387: 2384: 2350: 2349: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2343: 2338: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2322: 2319: 2259: 1932: 1909: 1879: 1807: 1797:Golmud (1 and 2) 1754: 1648: 1636: 1624: 1538:failure analysis 1193: 1174: 1170: 1151: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1134: 1132: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1109: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1078: 1061: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1045: 1022: 1020: 1012: 1011: 1002: 991: 990: 968: 966: 965: 960: 955: 953: 942: 941: 932: 927: 926: 909: 907: 906: 901: 898: 896: 885: 853: 851: 850: 845: 825: 820: 812: 807: 806: 805: 789: 788: 787: 763: 761: 760: 755: 752: 751: 750: 728: 727: 726: 697: 695: 694: 689: 687: 686: 671: 670: 669: 650: 649: 648: 629: 628: 606: 604: 603: 598: 584: 583: 582: 566: 565: 564: 514:solar irradiance 496: 304: 71: 45: 21: 7286: 7285: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7277: 7276: 7275: 7261: 7260: 7259: 7254: 7218: 7142: 7113: 6995: 6964: 6937: 6926: 6850: 6839:Water transport 6834: 6788: 6774:Solar golf cart 6747: 6705:Solar road stud 6634: 6588:System concepts 6583: 6512: 6435: 6424: 6403: 6357: 6262: 6257: 6227: 6218: 6216: 6207: 6206: 6202: 6193: 6191: 6182: 6181: 6177: 6168: 6166: 6157: 6156: 6152: 6143: 6141: 6132: 6131: 6127: 6117: 6115: 6108:zenithsolar.com 6102: 6101: 6097: 6088: 6086: 6077: 6076: 6072: 6063: 6061: 6052: 6051: 6047: 6038: 6036: 6027: 6026: 6022: 6013: 6011: 6002: 6001: 5997: 5988: 5986: 5977: 5976: 5972: 5963: 5961: 5952: 5951: 5947: 5938: 5936: 5927: 5926: 5922: 5913: 5911: 5902: 5901: 5897: 5888: 5886: 5877: 5876: 5872: 5863: 5861: 5852: 5851: 5847: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5819: 5817: 5812:. PV Magazine. 5807: 5806: 5802: 5793: 5791: 5778: 5777: 5773: 5758:Igor Bazovsky, 5757: 5753: 5744: 5742: 5733: 5732: 5728: 5718: 5716: 5709: 5684: 5683: 5679: 5643: 5642: 5638: 5628: 5626: 5617: 5616: 5612: 5602: 5600: 5590: 5589: 5585: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5562: 5558: 5557: 5553: 5544: 5542: 5533: 5532: 5528: 5519: 5517: 5513: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5497: 5488: 5486: 5477: 5476: 5472: 5463: 5461: 5454:"Victor Valley" 5452: 5451: 5447: 5438: 5436: 5429:"Crafton Hills" 5427: 5426: 5422: 5413: 5411: 5402: 5401: 5397: 5388: 5386: 5377: 5376: 5372: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5350: 5346: 5345: 5341: 5331: 5329: 5320: 5319: 5315: 5305: 5303: 5294: 5293: 5289: 5279: 5277: 5268: 5267: 5263: 5254: 5252: 5243: 5242: 5238: 5229: 5227: 5218: 5217: 5213: 5204: 5202: 5193: 5192: 5188: 5179: 5177: 5168: 5167: 5160: 5151: 5149: 5140: 5139: 5135: 5126: 5124: 5115: 5114: 5110: 5101: 5099: 5090: 5089: 5085: 5076: 5074: 5061: 5060: 5056: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5033: 5029: 5028: 5021: 5015:Wayback Machine 5006: 5002: 4996:Wayback Machine 4987: 4983: 4977:Wayback Machine 4968: 4964: 4958:Wayback Machine 4949: 4945: 4939:Wayback Machine 4930: 4926: 4920:Wayback Machine 4911: 4907: 4901:Wayback Machine 4892: 4888: 4882:Wayback Machine 4873: 4869: 4833: 4832: 4828: 4811: 4805: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4787: 4786: 4782: 4765: 4760: 4758: 4716: 4715: 4711: 4671: 4670: 4666: 4628: 4627: 4623: 4613: 4611: 4602: 4601: 4594: 4570: 4566: 4511: 4510: 4506: 4477: 4476: 4472: 4466:Wayback Machine 4457: 4453: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4408: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4391: 4390: 4386: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4339:Wayback Machine 4329:Wayback Machine 4314: 4310: 4296:Wayback Machine 4286: 4282: 4273: 4271: 4267: 4253: 4230: 4225: 4224: 4217: 4209:Wayback Machine 4200: 4196: 4187: 4185: 4176: 4175: 4171: 4155: 4151: 4142: 4140: 4133: 4114: 4113: 4109: 4100: 4098: 4094: 4087: 4080: 4079: 4075: 4061: 4051: 4047: 4021: 4020: 4016: 4007: 4005: 3996: 3995: 3991: 3982: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3964: 3963: 3956: 3946: 3944: 3940: 3933: 3929: 3928: 3921: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3898: 3894: 3893: 3886: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3831: 3830: 3826: 3788: 3787: 3783: 3745: 3744: 3740: 3730: 3728: 3719: 3718: 3714: 3704: 3702: 3693: 3692: 3688: 3678: 3676: 3667: 3666: 3662: 3652: 3651: 3642: 3632: 3630: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3607: 3605: 3596: 3595: 3588: 3579: 3577: 3568: 3567: 3563: 3553: 3551: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3528: 3526: 3517: 3516: 3512: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3490: 3486: 3485: 3481: 3443: 3442: 3438: 3415: 3414: 3410: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3358: 3356: 3347: 3346: 3337: 3328: 3326: 3322: 3315: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3297: 3295: 3288: 3265: 3264: 3260: 3254:Wayback Machine 3245:PV-insider.com 3244: 3240: 3230: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3213: 3212: 3195: 3185: 3183: 3179: 3168: 3164: 3163: 3156: 3146: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3114: 3112: 3108: 3101: 3096: 3095: 3072: 3062: 3060: 3056: 3049: 3045: 3044: 3033: 3027:Wayback Machine 3017: 3013: 3009: 2979: 2972: 2965: 2958: 2955: 2861:Israel/China/US 2814:Southwest Solar 2684: 2608: 2585: 2581: 2540:thermal runaway 2501: 2495: 2469: 2467: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2456: 2453: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2440: 2406: 2404: 2400: 2398: 2394: 2393: 2390: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2377: 2341: 2339: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2328: 2325: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2312: 2286: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2257: 2072:Tucson, Arizona 1965: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1939: 1930: 1787: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1746: 1742: 1729: 1719: 1699: 1692: 1677: 1656: 1655: 1654: 1653: 1652: 1649: 1641: 1640: 1637: 1629: 1628: 1625: 1610: 1603: 1568: 1559: 1546: 1515:62817) include 1485:standardization 1477: 1443: 1427: 1395: 1383: 1349: 1306: 1223: 1219: 1212: 1211:Triple-junction 1207: 1202: 1197: 1186: 1181: 1172: 1168: 1157:thermal voltage 1125: 1114: 1110: 1104: 1079: 1062: 1046: 1036: 1032: 1013: 1003: 982: 977: 976: 943: 933: 918: 912: 911: 889: 873: 872: 864: 813: 793: 772: 766: 765: 738: 711: 706: 705: 678: 654: 633: 620: 615: 614: 570: 552: 541: 540: 534:current–voltage 527: 523: 494: 483: 477: 438: 385:Optical losses 310:CPV Weaknesses 287:direct sunlight 272: 220:Martin Marietta 196: 87: 86: 85: 84: 83: 72: 63: 62: 61: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7284: 7282: 7274: 7273: 7263: 7262: 7256: 7255: 7253: 7252: 7240: 7227: 7224: 7223: 7220: 7219: 7217: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7184:Solar Frontier 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7159:Hanwha Q CELLS 7156: 7150: 7148: 7144: 7143: 7141: 7140: 7134: 7132: 7125: 7119: 7118: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7111: 7106: 7104:United Kingdom 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7039:Czech Republic 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7005: 7003: 6997: 6996: 6994: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6972: 6970: 6966: 6965: 6963: 6962: 6957: 6951: 6949: 6940: 6932: 6931: 6928: 6927: 6925: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6858: 6856: 6852: 6851: 6849: 6848: 6842: 6840: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6832: 6827: 6825:Qinetiq Zephyr 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6796: 6794: 6790: 6789: 6787: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6755: 6753: 6752:Land transport 6749: 6748: 6746: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6679: 6677:Solar backpack 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6653: 6651: 6644: 6640: 6639: 6636: 6635: 6633: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6591: 6589: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6581: 6579:Synchronverter 6576: 6571: 6569:Solar shingles 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6539:Solar inverter 6536: 6531: 6526: 6520: 6518: 6514: 6513: 6511: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6449: 6447: 6438: 6430: 6429: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6411: 6409: 6405: 6404: 6402: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6365: 6363: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6309: 6308: 6298: 6296:Solar constant 6293: 6288: 6283: 6277: 6275: 6268: 6264: 6263: 6258: 6256: 6255: 6248: 6241: 6233: 6226: 6225: 6200: 6175: 6150: 6125: 6095: 6070: 6045: 6020: 5995: 5970: 5945: 5920: 5895: 5870: 5845: 5826: 5800: 5786:. 2020-04-23. 5771: 5768:978-0486438672 5751: 5726: 5707: 5677: 5656:(4): 427–439. 5636: 5610: 5583: 5551: 5526: 5495: 5470: 5445: 5420: 5395: 5370: 5339: 5313: 5287: 5261: 5245:"Hami Phase 3" 5236: 5220:"Hami Phase 2" 5211: 5195:"Hami Phase 1" 5186: 5158: 5133: 5108: 5083: 5054: 5036:. March 2018. 5019: 5000: 4981: 4962: 4943: 4924: 4905: 4903:, 27 June 2013 4886: 4884:, 20 July 2012 4867: 4826: 4780: 4709: 4681:(1): 222–225, 4664: 4638:(2): 209–213, 4621: 4592: 4589:978-1118472965 4564: 4504: 4470: 4451: 4415: 4384: 4342: 4308: 4280: 4251: 4215: 4194: 4169: 4166:978-0127597515 4149: 4132:978-1482206739 4131: 4107: 4073: 4064:|journal= 4045: 4014: 3989: 3954: 3919: 3884: 3849: 3842: 3824: 3781: 3754:(3): 519–520. 3738: 3712: 3686: 3660: 3640: 3614: 3586: 3570:"ARENA Raygen" 3561: 3535: 3510: 3479: 3436: 3408: 3381:(2): 873–878. 3365: 3335: 3304: 3286: 3258: 3238: 3193: 3154: 3122: 3070: 3031: 3020:Amonix website 3010: 3008: 3005: 3004: 3003: 2997: 2992: 2985: 2984: 2970: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2929: 2928: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2910: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2895: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2871: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2859: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2818: 2815: 2811: 2810: 2808: 2805: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2792: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2754: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2728: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2707: 2702: 2700: 2697: 2696: 2693: 2689: 2688: 2685: 2682: 2679: 2676: 2673: 2633: 2632: 2629: 2626: 2623: 2620: 2607: 2604: 2583: 2579: 2536:heat exchanger 2497:Main article: 2494: 2491: 2488: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2479: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2425: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2416: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2362: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2351: 2310: 2307: 2304: 2301: 2295: 2294: 2291: 2290:Owner/operator 2288: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2249: 2242: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2217: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2190: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2115: 2109: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2082: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2055: 2054: 2052: 2051:NextEra Energy 2049: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2028: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2001: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1974: 1973: 1970: 1969:Owner/operator 1967: 1962: 1959: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1915: 1914: 1912: 1907: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1888: 1887:Soitec-Focusic 1885: 1882: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1867: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1858: 1855: 1852: 1849: 1843: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1825: 1819: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1810: 1805: 1802: 1799: 1793: 1792: 1789: 1784: 1781: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1744: 1740: 1727: 1717: 1697: 1694:(or sometimes 1690: 1676: 1673: 1650: 1643: 1642: 1638: 1631: 1630: 1626: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1609: 1606: 1601: 1566: 1558: 1555: 1545: 1542: 1517:stress testing 1476: 1473: 1447:Fresnel lenses 1442: 1439: 1426: 1423: 1394: 1391: 1382: 1379: 1348: 1347:Optical design 1345: 1304: 1294: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1254: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1234: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1215: 1214: 1213:III-V on GaAs 1209: 1204: 1199: 1184: 1179: 1153: 1152: 1141: 1137: 1131: 1128: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1090: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1056: 1052: 1049: 1043: 1040: 1035: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1019: 1016: 1010: 1006: 1000: 997: 994: 989: 985: 970: 969: 958: 952: 949: 946: 940: 936: 930: 925: 921: 895: 892: 888: 883: 880: 862: 855: 854: 843: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 823: 819: 816: 810: 804: 801: 796: 792: 786: 783: 780: 775: 749: 746: 741: 737: 734: 731: 725: 722: 719: 714: 699: 698: 685: 681: 677: 674: 668: 665: 662: 657: 653: 647: 644: 641: 636: 632: 627: 623: 608: 607: 596: 593: 590: 587: 581: 578: 573: 569: 563: 560: 555: 551: 548: 525: 521: 498:multi-junction 476: 473: 437: 434: 431: 430: 423: 422: 419: 411: 410: 407: 403: 402: 399: 395: 394: 391: 387: 386: 383: 379: 378: 375: 368: 367: 364: 360: 359: 356: 352: 351: 348: 344: 343: 340: 336: 335: 332: 328: 327: 324: 320: 319: 316: 312: 311: 308: 271: 268: 232:differentiator 195: 192: 135:Systems using 130:solar trackers 122:multi-junction 118:curved mirrors 76:solar trackers 73: 66: 65: 64: 58:Tesla Roadster 47: 40: 39: 38: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7283: 7272: 7271:Photovoltaics 7269: 7268: 7266: 7251: 7250: 7241: 7239: 7238: 7229: 7228: 7225: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7151: 7149: 7145: 7139: 7136: 7135: 7133: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7006: 7004: 7002: 6998: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6971: 6967: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6952: 6950: 6948: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6933: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6853: 6847: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6837: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6793:Air transport 6791: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6769:Solar roadway 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6759:Solar vehicle 6757: 6756: 6754: 6750: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6672:Solar charger 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6654: 6652: 6648: 6645: 6641: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6586: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6564:Solar tracker 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6521: 6519: 6515: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6446: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6431: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6406: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6307: 6304: 6303: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6281:Photovoltaics 6279: 6278: 6276: 6272: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6260:Photovoltaics 6254: 6249: 6247: 6242: 6240: 6235: 6234: 6231: 6214: 6210: 6204: 6201: 6189: 6185: 6184:"Silex Power" 6179: 6176: 6164: 6160: 6154: 6151: 6139: 6135: 6129: 6126: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6099: 6096: 6084: 6080: 6074: 6071: 6059: 6055: 6049: 6046: 6034: 6030: 6024: 6021: 6009: 6005: 5999: 5996: 5984: 5980: 5974: 5971: 5959: 5955: 5949: 5946: 5934: 5930: 5924: 5921: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5896: 5884: 5880: 5874: 5871: 5860:on 2013-12-27 5859: 5855: 5849: 5846: 5841: 5837: 5830: 5827: 5815: 5811: 5804: 5801: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5775: 5772: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5755: 5752: 5740: 5736: 5730: 5727: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5681: 5678: 5673: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5640: 5637: 5624: 5620: 5614: 5611: 5598: 5594: 5587: 5584: 5568: 5561: 5555: 5552: 5540: 5536: 5530: 5527: 5516:on 2016-08-15 5512: 5505: 5499: 5496: 5485:on 2019-01-08 5484: 5480: 5474: 5471: 5460:on 2019-01-13 5459: 5455: 5449: 5446: 5435:on 2019-01-08 5434: 5430: 5424: 5421: 5410:on 2016-07-15 5409: 5405: 5399: 5396: 5384: 5380: 5374: 5371: 5356: 5349: 5343: 5340: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5314: 5301: 5297: 5291: 5288: 5275: 5271: 5265: 5262: 5251:on 2019-01-20 5250: 5246: 5240: 5237: 5226:on 2019-01-20 5225: 5221: 5215: 5212: 5201:on 2019-01-14 5200: 5196: 5190: 5187: 5176:on 2015-02-15 5175: 5171: 5165: 5163: 5159: 5148:on 2017-01-01 5147: 5143: 5142:"Touwsrivier" 5137: 5134: 5123:on 2016-11-09 5122: 5118: 5112: 5109: 5098:on 2016-12-10 5097: 5093: 5087: 5084: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5058: 5055: 5039: 5032: 5026: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5009: 5004: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4990: 4985: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4971: 4966: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4952: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4933: 4928: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4914: 4909: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4895: 4890: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4876: 4871: 4868: 4862: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4846:(1): 030002. 4845: 4841: 4837: 4830: 4827: 4822: 4816: 4798: 4791: 4784: 4781: 4776: 4770: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4713: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4668: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4625: 4622: 4609: 4605: 4599: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4568: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4508: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4474: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4460: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4419: 4416: 4401: 4394: 4388: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4343: 4340: 4336: 4333: 4330: 4326: 4323: 4319: 4312: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4290: 4284: 4281: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4229: 4222: 4220: 4216: 4213: 4210: 4206: 4203: 4198: 4195: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4153: 4150: 4138: 4134: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4119: 4111: 4108: 4093: 4086: 4085: 4077: 4074: 4069: 4056: 4048: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4025:Hinzer, Karin 4018: 4015: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3975: 3968: 3961: 3959: 3955: 3939: 3932: 3926: 3924: 3920: 3904: 3897: 3891: 3889: 3885: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3865:: 1697–1708. 3864: 3860: 3853: 3850: 3845: 3843:9781305635166 3839: 3835: 3828: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3782: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3739: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3713: 3700: 3696: 3690: 3687: 3674: 3670: 3664: 3661: 3656: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3641: 3628: 3624: 3618: 3615: 3604:on 2015-05-20 3603: 3599: 3593: 3591: 3587: 3575: 3571: 3565: 3562: 3549: 3545: 3539: 3536: 3524: 3520: 3514: 3511: 3496: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3437: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3412: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3366: 3355:on 2016-03-10 3354: 3350: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3336: 3325:on 2017-08-08 3321: 3314: 3308: 3305: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3270: 3262: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3248: 3242: 3239: 3223: 3216: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3194: 3178: 3174: 3167: 3161: 3159: 3155: 3139: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3107: 3100: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3071: 3055: 3048: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3021: 3015: 3012: 3006: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2993: 2990: 2987: 2986: 2982: 2981:Energy portal 2976: 2971: 2968: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2946: 2943: 2940: 2937: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2921: 2918: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2875: 2872: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2831: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2817:United States 2812: 2809: 2806: 2803: 2800: 2793: 2790: 2787: 2784: 2781: 2779:United States 2774: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2762: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2722: 2715: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2670: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2638: 2630: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2618: 2614: 2613: 2612: 2605: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2589: 2577: 2571: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2556:water heating 2553: 2549: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2530: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2500: 2492: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2470:ASU Poly LCPV 2439: 2437:Mesa, Arizona 2436: 2427: 2426: 2423: 2420: 2417: 2413: 2376: 2373: 2364: 2363: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2348: 2311: 2308: 2300: 2297: 2296: 2292: 2289: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2273: 2264: 2262:Power station 2261: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2219: 2218: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2206: 2195: 2192: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2168: 2165: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2141: 2138: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2087: 2084: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2060: 2057: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2047: 2044: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2017: 2006: 2003: 2002: 1999: 1996: 1993: 1990: 1979: 1976: 1975: 1971: 1968: 1963: 1960: 1955: 1946: 1937: 1935:Power station 1934: 1933: 1927: 1921: 1916: 1913: 1908: 1905: 1893: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1869: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1848: 1845: 1844: 1841: 1838: 1835: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1798: 1795: 1794: 1790: 1785: 1782: 1777: 1768: 1759: 1757:Power station 1756: 1755: 1752: 1750: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1723: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1681: 1674: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1647: 1635: 1623: 1614: 1608:Installations 1607: 1605: 1599: 1595: 1594:heat-transfer 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1572: 1567:max cell 1564: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1521:failure modes 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1489:certification 1486: 1482: 1481:capital costs 1474: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1462: 1457: 1454:and economy. 1453: 1448: 1440: 1434: 1430: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1414: 1411: 1404: 1399: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1387:magnification 1380: 1378: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1362: 1359: 1354: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1337: 1334: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1313:recombination 1310: 1301: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1217: 1216: 1210: 1205: 1201:Multi-crystal 1200: 1195: 1194: 1188: 1176: 1169:25.85 mV 1166: 1162: 1158: 1139: 1135: 1129: 1126: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1080: 1072: 1066: 1063: 1054: 1050: 1047: 1041: 1038: 1033: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1017: 1014: 1008: 1004: 998: 995: 992: 987: 983: 975: 974: 973: 956: 950: 947: 944: 938: 934: 928: 923: 919: 893: 890: 886: 881: 878: 871: 870: 869: 866: 860: 841: 835: 829: 826: 821: 817: 814: 808: 794: 790: 778: 773: 739: 735: 732: 729: 717: 712: 704: 703: 702: 683: 679: 675: 672: 660: 655: 651: 639: 634: 630: 625: 621: 613: 612: 611: 594: 591: 588: 585: 571: 567: 553: 549: 546: 539: 538: 537: 536:(I-V) curve: 535: 531: 517: 515: 511: 507: 506:semiconductor 499: 492: 487: 482: 474: 472: 469: 465: 461: 459: 454: 450: 442: 435: 428: 424: 420: 417: 413: 412: 408: 405: 404: 400: 397: 396: 392: 389: 388: 384: 381: 380: 376: 374: 370: 369: 365: 362: 361: 357: 354: 353: 349: 346: 345: 341: 338: 337: 333: 330: 329: 325: 322: 321: 317: 314: 313: 309: 307:CPV Strengths 306: 305: 302: 300: 296: 292: 288: 283: 281: 277: 269: 267: 265: 261: 257: 253: 252:United States 249: 244: 240: 235: 233: 229: 223: 221: 217: 213: 209: 206: 201: 193: 191: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 172:Golden Banana 169: 165: 161: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 133: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 81: 77: 70: 59: 55: 51: 44: 33: 19: 7248: 7235: 7214:Yingli Solar 7194:Sungen Solar 7169:Motech Solar 7123:PV companies 7084:South Africa 6902:Solar Splash 6643:Applications 6574:Solar mirror 6434:Photovoltaic 6217:. Retrieved 6203: 6192:. Retrieved 6178: 6167:. Retrieved 6153: 6142:. Retrieved 6128: 6116:. Retrieved 6112:the original 6107: 6098: 6087:. Retrieved 6079:"Sun Oyster" 6073: 6062:. Retrieved 6048: 6037:. Retrieved 6023: 6012:. Retrieved 5998: 5987:. Retrieved 5973: 5962:. Retrieved 5948: 5937:. Retrieved 5923: 5912:. Retrieved 5898: 5887:. Retrieved 5873: 5862:. Retrieved 5858:the original 5848: 5840:RenewEconomy 5839: 5829: 5818:. Retrieved 5803: 5792:. Retrieved 5783: 5774: 5759: 5754: 5743:. Retrieved 5729: 5719:September 7, 5717:. Retrieved 5690: 5680: 5653: 5649: 5639: 5627:. Retrieved 5613: 5601:. Retrieved 5586: 5574:. Retrieved 5567:the original 5554: 5543:. Retrieved 5535:"Fort Irwin" 5529: 5518:. Retrieved 5511:the original 5498: 5487:. Retrieved 5483:the original 5473: 5462:. Retrieved 5458:the original 5448: 5437:. Retrieved 5433:the original 5423: 5412:. Retrieved 5408:the original 5398: 5387:. Retrieved 5373: 5362:. Retrieved 5342: 5330:. Retrieved 5316: 5304:. Retrieved 5290: 5278:. Retrieved 5264: 5253:. Retrieved 5249:the original 5239: 5228:. Retrieved 5224:the original 5214: 5203:. Retrieved 5199:the original 5189: 5178:. Retrieved 5174:the original 5150:. Retrieved 5146:the original 5136: 5125:. Retrieved 5121:the original 5111: 5100:. Retrieved 5096:the original 5086: 5075:. Retrieved 5066: 5057: 5045:. Retrieved 5003: 4984: 4965: 4946: 4927: 4908: 4889: 4870: 4843: 4839: 4829: 4804:. Retrieved 4783: 4759:, retrieved 4726: 4722: 4712: 4678: 4674: 4667: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4612:. Retrieved 4572: 4567: 4543:10754/626742 4517: 4513: 4507: 4486:(4): 12–13, 4483: 4479: 4473: 4454: 4428: 4424: 4418: 4407:. Retrieved 4387: 4358:(1): 62–67, 4355: 4351: 4345: 4317: 4311: 4299: 4283: 4272:. Retrieved 4234: 4211: 4197: 4186:. Retrieved 4172: 4157: 4152: 4141:. Retrieved 4117: 4110: 4099:. Retrieved 4083: 4076: 4055:cite journal 4031:. SPIE: 36. 4017: 4006:. Retrieved 4004:. 2022-05-30 4001: 3992: 3981:. Retrieved 3945:. Retrieved 3910:. Retrieved 3862: 3858: 3852: 3833: 3827: 3794: 3790: 3784: 3751: 3747: 3741: 3729:. Retrieved 3715: 3705:February 22, 3703:. Retrieved 3689: 3677:. Retrieved 3663: 3654: 3631:. Retrieved 3617: 3606:. Retrieved 3602:the original 3578:. Retrieved 3564: 3552:. Retrieved 3538: 3527:. Retrieved 3513: 3502:. Retrieved 3482: 3452:(1): 84–90. 3449: 3445: 3439: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3378: 3374: 3368: 3357:. Retrieved 3353:the original 3327:. Retrieved 3320:the original 3307: 3296:. Retrieved 3268: 3261: 3241: 3229:. Retrieved 3222:the original 3184:. Retrieved 3177:the original 3172: 3145:. Retrieved 3125: 3113:. Retrieved 3106:the original 3061:. Retrieved 3054:the original 3014: 2881: 2853:Zenith Solar 2744: 2704: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2641: 2634: 2609: 2572: 2568:process heat 2564:desalination 2544: 2533: 2520:cogeneration 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2502: 2186:Emcore Solar 1736: 1713:1.5D, & 1702: 1686: 1657: 1611: 1561:The maximum 1560: 1547: 1478: 1469: 1465: 1444: 1428: 1415: 1407: 1384: 1363: 1350: 1330: 1297: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1206:Mono-crystal 1177: 1165:p-n junction 1154: 971: 867: 856: 700: 609: 518: 503: 470: 466: 462: 451: 447: 426: 284: 273: 256:South Africa 236: 224: 212:Ramón Areces 208:Fresnel lens 197: 179: 157: 140: 136: 134: 106:photovoltaic 101: 97: 93: 89: 88: 7209:Trina Solar 7154:First Solar 7094:Switzerland 7074:Netherlands 6912:Tour de Sol 6610:Fill factor 6549:Solar cable 6524:Solar panel 6445:Solar cells 6159:"BSQ Solar" 6029:"Solartron" 4520:: 154–164, 4431:: 272–275, 4332:open access 3791:Solar Cells 3425:: 179–187. 2913:Silex Power 2760:Switzerland 2615:high solar 2462: / 2449:111°40′38″W 2399: / 2386:109°16′17″W 2334: / 2321:119°08′24″W 2282:Coordinates 2078:Arzon Solar 1709:=1000 W/m, 1574:reliability 1534:diagnostics 1511:62789, and 1491:standards ( 1479:The higher 1475:Reliability 1218:Approximate 1161:thermalized 530:fill factor 528:), and the 510:solar cells 188:more common 126:solar cells 7131:By country 7001:By country 6936:Generation 6846:Solar boat 6695:Solar Tuki 6681:Solar tree 6667:Solar lamp 6650:Appliances 6274:Technology 6219:2016-02-13 6194:2016-03-14 6169:2018-10-21 6144:2015-04-18 6089:2019-07-31 6064:2015-12-13 6039:2017-12-27 6014:2019-07-31 5989:2015-05-06 5964:2015-04-18 5939:2015-04-18 5914:2016-03-15 5889:2016-03-15 5864:2014-01-17 5820:2021-01-28 5794:2021-01-28 5745:2015-06-07 5545:2019-01-18 5520:2019-01-18 5489:2019-01-08 5464:2019-01-13 5439:2019-01-08 5414:2015-04-25 5404:"Newberry" 5389:2019-01-13 5364:2019-01-08 5306:25 January 5280:25 January 5255:2019-01-19 5230:2019-01-19 5205:2019-01-18 5180:2015-04-25 5152:2016-12-31 5127:2015-04-25 5117:"Golmud 2" 5102:2015-04-25 5092:"Golmud 1" 5077:2019-01-20 5067:www.iec.ch 5047:5 February 4806:2019-01-13 4761:2019-12-03 4614:5 February 4409:2019-01-13 4274:2019-12-03 4188:2021-10-06 4143:2016-02-12 4101:2017-03-13 4008:2024-07-23 3983:2019-01-13 3965:S. Kurtz. 3947:19 January 3912:19 January 3633:9 February 3608:2015-05-18 3580:2018-08-13 3554:4 February 3529:2019-07-31 3519:"CPVMatch" 3504:2017-01-20 3359:2015-03-24 3329:2017-03-03 3298:2018-12-21 3186:4 February 3007:References 2882:- Tier 3 - 2864:Large dish 2833:Sun Oyster 2820:Large Dish 2801:Large dish 2782:Large dish 2763:Large dish 2745:- Tier 2 - 2705:- Tier 1 - 2692:Generator 2582:/2 MW 2468: ( 2446:33°17′37″N 2405: ( 2383:34°17′40″N 2340: ( 2318:39°07′41″N 1705:(CSTC) of 1580:and other 1353:solar cell 1220:Junction V 1198:Technology 1173:300 K 479:See also: 475:Efficiency 276:heat sinks 270:Challenges 190:than CPV. 164:irradiance 112:, it uses 7009:Australia 6986:Solar Ark 6892:Solar Cup 6784:Sunmobile 6764:Solar car 6362:Materials 6134:"Suncore" 5904:"Idhelio" 5629:March 15, 5603:March 15, 5576:March 15, 5170:"Alamosa" 4743:1099-159X 4705:1551-7616 4652:2156-3381 4560:116055639 4552:1359-4311 4500:1755-0084 4447:1551-7616 4372:2156-3381 4123:CRC Press 3879:1364-0321 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