Brain size - Knowledge (XXG)

210: 218: 834:, northern populations have a 20% larger visual cortex than those in the southern latitude populations, and this potentially explains the population differences in human brain size (and roughly cranial capacity). Neurological functions are determined more by the organization of the brain rather than the volume. Individual variability is also important when considering cranial capacity, for example the average Neanderthal cranial capacity for females was 1300 cm and 1600 cm for males. Neanderthals had larger eyes and bodies relative to their height, thus a disproportionately large area of their brain was dedicated to somatic and visual processing, functions not normally associated with intelligence. When these areas were adjusted to match anatomically modern 284: 554:). Consistent with adult findings, average cerebral volume is approximately 10% larger in boys than girls. However, such differences should not be interpreted as imparting any sort of functional advantage or disadvantage; gross structural measures may not reflect functionally relevant factors such as neuronal connectivity and receptor density, and of note is the high variability of brain size even in narrowly defined groups, for example children at the same age may have as much as a 50% differences in total brain volume. Young girls have on average relative larger 276: 195:

Yet another study argued that adult human brain weight is 1300-1400 g for adult humans and 350-400 g for newborn humans. There is a range of volume and weights, and not just one number that one can definitively rely on, as with body mass. It is also important to note that variation between individuals is not as important as variation within species, as overall the differences are much smaller. The mechanisms of interspecific and intraspecific variation also differ.

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consistent associations are observed within the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, the hippocampus, and the cerebellum, but only account for a relatively small amount of variance in IQ, which suggests that while brain size may be related to human intelligence, other factors also play a role. In addition, brain volumes do not correlate strongly with other and more specific cognitive measures. In men, IQ correlates more with gray matter volume in the

249:, which was the hominid with the biggest brain size. Some data suggest that the average brain size has decreased since then, including a study concluding the decrease "was surprisingly recent, occurring in the last 3,000 years". However, a reanalysis of the same data suggests that brain size has not decreased, and that the conclusion was made using datasets that are too dissimilar to support quantitative comparison. 4549: 826:

capacity with other cranial measurements and in comparing skulls from different beings. It is commonly used to study abnormalities of cranial size and shape or aspects of growth and development of the volume of the brain. Cranial capacity is an indirect approach to test the size of the brain. A few studies on cranial capacity have been done on living beings through linear dimensions.

36: 856:(EQ) was developed in 1973 by Harry Jerison. It compares the size of the brain of the specimen to the expected brain size of animals with roughly the same weight. This way a more objective judgement can be made on the cranial capacity of an individual animal. A large scientific collection of brain endocasts and measurements of cranial capacity has been compiled by Holloway. 817:. The most commonly used unit of measure is the cubic centimetre (cm). The volume of the cranium is used as a rough indicator of the size of the brain, and this in turn is used as a rough indicator of the potential intelligence of the organism. Cranial capacity is often tested by filling the cranial cavity with glass beads and measuring their volume, or by 487: 651:

some studies find moderate correlations and others find none. A recent review by Nesbitt, Flynn et al. (2012) points out that crude brain size is unlikely to be a accurate measure of IQ. Brain size is known to differ between men and women, for example (men on average have larger bodies than women), but without well documented differences in IQ.

506:; men on average also have larger bodies than women.) Males have been found to have on average greater cerebral, cerebellar and cerebral cortical lobar volumes, except possibly left parietal. The gender differences in size vary by more specific brain regions. Studies have tended to indicate that men have a relatively larger 825:

Knowledge of the volume of the cranial cavity can be important information for the study of different populations with various differences like geographical, racial, or ethnic origin. Other things can also affect cranial capacity such as nutrition. It is also used to study correlating between cranial

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of about 0.75. There are good reasons to expect a power law: for example, the body-size to body-length relationship follows a power law with an exponent of 0.33, and the body-size to surface-area relationship follows a power law with an exponent of 0.67. The explanation for an exponent of 0.75 is not

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actually increases in adolescence. This finding also show that while females have lower brain volume, proportionate to their smaller size, they have higher grey matter density than males, which could explain why their cognitive performance is comparable. Thus, while adolescents lose brain volume, and

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auditory evoked potentials, and intelligence shows a dissociation, such that both brain volume and speed of P300 correlate with measured aspects of intelligence, but not with each other. Evidence conflicts on the question of whether brain size variation also predicts intelligence between siblings, as

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are typically closer in size. The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.5 kg (3.3 lb). In men the average weight is about 1370 g and in women about 1200 g. The volume is around 1260 cm in men and 1130 cm in women, although there is substantial individual variation.

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We find that the adult male human brain contains on average 86.1 ± 8.1 billion NeuN-positive cells ("neurons") and 84.6 ± 9.8 billion NeuN-negative ("nonneuronal") cells. These findings challenge the common view that humans stand out from other primates in their brain composition and indicate that,

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A human baby's brain at birth averages 369 cmand increases, during the first year of life, to about 961 cm, after which the growth rate declines. Brain volume peaks at the teenage years, and after the age of 40 it begins declining at 5% per decade, speeding up around 70. Average adult male

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are larger in boys. However, multiple studies have found a higher synaptic density in males: a 2008 study reported that men had a significantly higher average synaptic density of 12.9 × 108 per cubic millimeter, whereas in women it was 8.6 × 108 per cubic millimeter, a 33% difference. Other studies

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gender differences in the gray matter ratio for most ages (grouped by decade), except in the 3rd and 6th decades of life in the sample of 758 women and 702 men aged 20–69. The average male in their third decade (ages 20–29) had a significantly higher gray matter ratio than the average female of the

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volume appears to be mainly explained by environmental factors, suggesting such factors also play a role in the surrounding brain tissue. Genes may cause the association between brain structure and cognitive functions, or the latter may influence the former during life. A number of candidate genes

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A large-scale 1984 survey of global variation in skulls has concluded that variation in skull and head sizes is unrelated to race, but rather climatic heat preservation, stating "We find little support for the use of brain size in taxonomic assessment (other than with paleontological extremes over

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Azevedo, Frederico A.C.; Carvalho, Ludmila R.B.; Grinberg, Lea T.; Farfel, José Marcelo; Ferretti, Renata E.L.; Leite, Renata E.P.; Filho, Wilson Jacob; Lent, Roberto; Herculano-Houzel, Suzana (10 April 2009). "Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically

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imaging. A more accurate way of measuring cranial capacity, is to make an endocranial cast and measure the amount of water the cast displaces. In the past there have been dozens of studies done to estimate cranial capacity on skulls. Most of these studies have been done on dry skull using linear

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over the past two million years has been marked by a steady increase in brain size, but much of it can be accounted for by corresponding increases in body size. There are, however, many departures from the trend that are difficult to explain in a systematic way: in particular, the appearance of

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has been a controversial and frequently investigated question. In 2021 scientists from Stony Brook University and the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior published findings showing that the brain size to body size ratio of different species has changed over time in response to a variety of

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volume) has been demonstrated in adults after three months of training in a visual-motor skill, as the qualitative change (i.e. learning of a new task) appear more critical for the brain to change its structure than continued training of an already-learned task. Such changes (e.g. revising for

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Studies demonstrate a correlation between brain size and intelligence, larger brains predicting higher intelligence. It is however not clear if the correlation is causal. The majority of MRI studies report moderate correlations around 0.3 to 0.4 between brain volume and intelligence. The most

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in 1980 and by a study with rats, suggest that relatively high levels of intelligence and relatively normal functioning are possible even with very small brains. It is unclear what conclusions could be drawn from such reports – such as about brain capacities, redundancies, mechanics and size

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time). Racial taxonomies which include cranial capacity, head shape, or any other trait influenced by climate confound ecotypic and phyletic causes. For Pleistocene hominids, we doubt that the volume of the braincase is any more taxonomically 'valuable' than any other trait."

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Beals, Kenneth L.; Smith, Courtland L.; Dodd, Stephen M.; Angel, J. Lawrence; Armstrong, Este; Blumenberg, Bennett; Girgis, Fakhry G.; Turkel, Spencer; Gibson, Kathleen R.; Henneberg, Maciej; Menk, Roland; Morimoto, Iwataro; Sokal, Robert R.; Trinkaus, Erik (June 1984).

583:. Men show a steeper decline in global gray matter volume, although in both sexes it varies by region with some areas exhibiting little or no age effect. Overall white matter volume does not appear to decline with age, although there is variation between brain regions. 549:

Total cerebral and gray matter volumes peak during the ages from 10–20 years (earlier in girls than boys), whereas white matter and ventricular volumes increase. There is a general pattern in neural development of childhood peaks followed by adolescent declines (e.g.

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However, larger cranial capacity is not always indicative of a more intelligent organism, since larger capacities are required for controlling a larger body, or in many cases are an adaptive feature for life in a colder environment. For instance, among modern

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Kouprina, Natalay; Pavlicek, Adam; Mochida, Ganeshwaran H; Solomon, Gregory; Gersch, William; Yoon, Young-Ho; Collura, Randall; Ruvolo, Maryellen; Barrett, J. Carl; Woods, C. Geoffrey; Walsh, Christopher A; Jurka, Jerzy; Larionov, Vladimir (23 March 2004).

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Giedd, Jay N.; Blumenthal, Jonathan; Jeffries, Neal O.; Castellanos, F. X.; Liu, Hong; Zijdenbos, Alex; Paus, Tomáš; Evans, Alan C.; Rapoport, Judith L. (October 1999). "Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study".

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Smaers, J. B.; Rothman, R. S.; Hudson, D. R.; Balanoff, A. M.; Beatty, B.; Dechmann, D. K. N.; de Vries, D.; Dunn, J. C.; Fleagle, J. G.; Gilbert, C. C.; Goswami, A.; Iwaniuk, A. N.; Jungers, W. L.; Kerney, M.; Ksepka, D. T. (2021-04-30).

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Not all investigators are happy with the amount of attention that has been paid to brain size. Roth and Dicke, for example, have argued that factors other than size are more highly correlated with intelligence, such as the

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medical exams) have been shown to last for at least 3 months without further practicing; other examples include learning novel speech sounds, musical ability, navigation skills and learning to read mirror-reflected words.

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Significant dynamic changes in brain structure take place through adulthood and aging, with substantial variation between individuals. In later decades, men show greater volume loss in whole brain volume and in the

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Egan, Vincent; Chiswick, Ann; Santosh, Celestine; Naidu, K.; Rimmington, J.Ewen; Best, Jonathan J.K. (September 1994). "Size isn't everything: A study of brain volume, intelligence and auditory evoked potentials".

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same age group. In contrast, among subjects in their sixth decade, the average woman had a significantly larger gray matter ratio, though no meaningful difference was found among those in their 7th decade of life.

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While humans have the largest encephalization quotient of extant animals, it is not out of line for a primate. Some other anatomical trends are correlated in the human evolutionary path with brain size: the

754:. Thus, in the species with the largest brains, most of their volume is filled with cortex: this applies not only to humans, but also to animals such as dolphins, whales or elephants. The evolution of 777:

and the speed of their connections. Moreover, they point out that intelligence depends not just on the amount of brain tissue, but on the details of how it is structured. It is also well known that

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The majority of efforts to demonstrate this have relied on indirect data that assessed skull measurements as opposed to direct brain observations. These are considered scientifically discredited.

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Haile-Selassie, Yohannes; Melillo, Stephanie M.; Vazzana, Antonino; Benazzi, Stefano; Ryan, Timothy M. (12 September 2019). "A 3.8-million-year-old hominin cranium from Woranso-Mille, Ethiopia".

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Lee, H.; Devlin, J. T.; Shakeshaft, C.; Stewart, L. H.; Brennan, A.; Glensman, J.; Pitcher, K.; Crinion, J.; Mechelli, A.; Frackowiak, R. S. J.; Green, D. W.; Price, C. J. (31 January 2007).

178:“Sometimes, relatively big brains can be the end result of a gradual decrease in body size to suit a new habitat or way of moving—in other words, nothing to do with intelligence at all.” 4134:

Holloway, Ralph L., Yuan, M. S., and Broadfield, D.C. (2004). The Human Fossil Record: Brain Endocasts: The Paleoneurological Evidence. New York. John Wiley & Sons Publishers (

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When the mammalian brain increases in size, not all parts increase at the same rate. In particular, the larger the brain of a species, the greater the fraction taken up by the

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have found an average of 4 billion more neurons in the male brain, corroborating this difference, as each neuron has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons.

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A discovery in recent years is that the structure of the adult human brain changes when a new cognitive or motor skill, including vocabulary, is learned. Structural

735:, for a given body size, have brains 5 to 10 times as large as the formula predicts. Predators tend to have relatively larger brains than the animals they prey on; 1587:

Falk, Dean; Hildebolt, Charles; Smith, Kirk; Morwood, M. J.; Sutikna, Thomas; Brown, Peter; Jatmiko; Saptomo, E. Wayhu; Brunsden, Barry; Prior, Fred (8 Apr 2005).

842:. When the neanderthal version of the NOVA1 gene is inserted into stem cells it creates neurons with fewer synapses than stem cells containing the human version. 1099: 716:

obvious; however, it is worth noting that several physiological variables appear to be related to body size by approximately the same exponent—for example, the

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brain weight is 1,345 grams (47.4 oz), while an adult female has an average brain weight of 1,222 grams (43.1 oz). (This does not take into account

3143: 3296:"Gray Matter Increase Induced by Practice Correlates with Task-Specific Activation: A Combined Functional and Morphometric Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study" 2891: 2426:

Carne, Ross P.; Vogrin, Simon; Litewka, Lucas; Cook, Mark J. (January 2006). "Cerebral cortex: An MRI-based study of volume and variance with age and sex".

1896:"Life without a brain: Neuroradiological and behavioral evidence of neuroplasticity necessary to sustain brain function in the face of severe hydrocephalus" 3525: 2731: 3759:

Ross, Callum; Henneberg, Maciej (December 1995). "Basicranial flexion, relative brain size, and facial kyphosis inHomo sapiens and some fossil hominids".

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estimates for overall brain size in adulthood (between 66% and 97%). The effect varies regionally within the brain, however, with high heritabilities of

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Efforts to find racial or ethnic variation in brain size are generally considered to be a pseudoscientific endeavor and have traditionally been tied to

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Stanford, C., Allen, J.S., Anton, S.C., Lovell, N.C. (2009). Biological Anthropology: the Natural History of Humankind. Toronto: Pearson Canada. p. 301

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modern man about 100,000 years ago was marked by a decrease in body size at the same time as an increase in brain size. Even so, it is noteworthy that

429:, which is believed to have gone extinct far earlier (around 1.65 million years ago.). The reason for this regression in brain size is believed to be 4075:

Xiu-Jie Wu; et al. (Feb 2022). "Evolution of cranial capacity revisited: A view from the late Middle Pleistocene cranium from Xujiayao, China".

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Forsdyke, Donald R. (1 December 2015). "Wittgenstein's Certainty is Uncertain: Brain Scans of Cured Hydrocephalics Challenge Cherished Assumptions".

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Ferris, C. F.; Cai, X.; Qiao, J.; Switzer, B.; Baun, J.; Morrison, T.; Iriah, S.; Madularu, D.; Sinkevicius, K. W.; Kulkarni, P. (11 November 2019).

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Allen, John S.; Damasio, Hanna; Grabowski, Thomas J. (August 2002). "Normal neuroanatomical variation in the human brain: An MRI-volumetric study".

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Rabinowicz, Theodore; Petetot, Jean MacDonald-Comber; Gartside, Peter S.; Sheyn, David; Sheyn, Tony; de Courten-Myers, Gabrielle M. (January 2002).

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such as the opossum. A standard measure for assessing an animal's brain size compared to what would be expected from its body size is known as the

283: 1255:"Did the transition to complex societies in the Holocene drive a reduction in brain size? A reassessment of the DeSilva et al. (2021) hypothesis" 2947:

Mcdaniel, M (July 2005). "Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence".

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Nisbett, Richard E.; Aronson, Joshua; Blair, Clancy; Dickens, William; Flynn, James; Halpern, Diane F.; Turkheimer, Eric (February 2012).

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Good, Catriona D.; Johnsrude, Ingrid S.; Ashburner, John; Henson, Richard N.A.; Friston, Karl J.; Frackowiak, Richard S.J. (July 2001).

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Egan, Vincent; Wickett, John C.; Vernon, Philip A. (July 1995). "Brain size and intelligence: erratum, addendum, and correction".

1811:"Scaling of Brain Metabolism with a Fixed Energy Budget per Neuron: Implications for Neuronal Activity, Plasticity and Evolution" 727:(cats, rodents, primates, etc.) departs from it to some degree, in a way that generally reflects the overall "sophistication" of 256:, a neural developmental disorder that affects cerebral cortical volume. Similarly, sociocultural explanations draw attention to 635:, which is roughly involved in sensory integration and attention, whereas in women it correlates with gray matter volume in the 4450: 3693: 3294:

Ilg, R.; Wohlschlager, A. M.; Gaser, C.; Liebau, Y.; Dauner, R.; Woller, A.; Zimmer, C.; Zihl, J.; Muhlau, M. (16 April 2008).

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Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

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in which the brains of insular species become smaller due to reduced predation risk. This is beneficial as it reduces the

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Harrison, Paul J.; Freemantle, Nick; Geddes, John R. (November 2003). "Meta-analysis of brain weight in schizophrenia".

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Savage, V. M.; Gillooly, J. F.; Woodruff, W. H.; West, G. B.; Allen, A. P.; Enquist, B. J.; Brown, J. H. (April 2004).

1354:"When and Why Did Human Brains Decrease in Size? A New Change-Point Analysis and Insights From Brain Evolution in Ants" 699:. The relationship is not proportional, though: the brain-to-body mass ratio varies. The largest ratio found is in the 72: 4032: 3952: 3747:

with regard to numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells, the human brain is an isometrically scaled-up primate brain.

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Modern human cranial size over the last 300 ka using data consolidated into 100-year means according to one 2022 study

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Rushton, J. Philippe; Jensen, Arthur R. (2005). "Thirty years of research on race differences in cognitive ability".

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with females having lower brain volume than males, this is compensated for by an increase in density of grey matter.

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Pakkenberg, Bente; Gundersen, Hans Jørgen G. (1997). "Neocortical neuron number in humans: Effect of sex and age".

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As Kamran Safi, researcher at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior and the study’s senior author writes:

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Peper, Jiska S.; Brouwer, Rachel M.; Boomsma, Dorret I.; Kahn, René S.; Hulshoff Pol, Hilleke E. (June 2007).

231:, the brain is progressively larger, with exception of extinct Neanderthals whose brain size exceeded modern 144:. Measuring brain size and cranial capacity is relevant both to humans and other animals, and can be done by 4420: 845:

Parts of a cranium found in China in the 1970s show that the young man had a cranial capacity of around 1700

275: 257: 86: 3843:"Can endocranial volume be estimated accurately from external skull measurements in great-tailed grackles ( 2469:

Taki, Y.; Thyreau, B.; Kinomura, S.; Sato, K.; Goto, R.; Kawashima, R.; Fukuda, H. (2011). He, Yong (ed.).

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Campbell, G.C., Loy, J.D., Cruz-Uribe, K. (2006). Humankind Emerging: Ninth Edition. Boston: Pearson. p346

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with fossils dating from 60,000-100,000 years ago. Despite its relatively derived position in the hominin

204: 191: 3984:"New insights into differences in brain organization between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans" 2137:

Graves, Joseph L. (September 2015). "Great Is Their Sin: Biological Determinism in the Age of Genomics".

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Kappelman, John (March 1996). "The evolution of body mass and relative brain size in fossil hominids".

2064:"The fault in his seeds: Lost notes to the case of bias in Samuel George Morton's cranial race science" 68: 1506: 1304: 4315: 4310: 4161: 4084: 3590: 3428: 3381: 3354: 3240: 2633: 2482: 1907: 1869: 1822: 1773: 1718: 1701:

F. Spoor; P. Gunz; S. Neubauer; S. Stelzer; N. Scott; A. Kwekason; M. C. Dean (2015). "Reconstructed

1659: 1600: 1457:"Accelerated Evolution of the ASPM Gene Controlling Brain Size Begins Prior to Human Brain Expansion" 1047: 717: 436: 342: 269: 4488: 4483: 4403: 4365: 3910: 966: 647: 535: 187: 3625: 2471:"Correlations among Brain Gray Matter Volumes, Age, Gender, and Hemisphere in Healthy Individuals" 2334: 1100:"New Study Has Scientists Re-Evaluating Relative Brain Size and Mammalian Intelligence - SBU News" 4473: 4457: 4435: 4340: 4330: 4195: 4108: 3823: 3737: 3674: 3556: 3506: 3335: 3276: 3227:

Driemeyer, Joenna; Boyke, Janina; Gaser, Christian; Büchel, Christian; May, Arne (23 July 2008).

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Alonso-Nanclares, L.; Gonzalez-Soriano, J.; Rodriguez, J. R.; DeFelipe, J. (23 September 2008).

919: 4445: 4440: 4398: 4187: 4100: 4013: 3878: 3815: 3796:"Validating methods for estimating endocranial volume in individual red deer (Cervus elaphus)" 3776: 3729: 3666: 3629: 3548: 3498: 3461: 3397: 3327: 3268: 3201: 3070: 3008: 2914: 2867: 2818: 2754: 2704: 2669: 2586: 2545: 2510: 2443: 2400: 2364: 2307: 2193: 2095: 1976: 1941: 1923: 1850: 1791: 1734: 1675: 1616: 1488: 1410: 1375: 1286: 1228: 1162: 1125: 1081: 1063: 608: 468: 416: 399: 378: 2249:"Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines [and Comments and Reply]" 4430: 4415: 4345: 4296: 4177: 4169: 4092: 4003: 3995: 3915: 3868: 3858: 3807: 3768: 3721: 3658: 3621: 3598: 3540: 3490: 3436: 3389: 3317: 3307: 3258: 3248: 3191: 3181: 3125: 3098: 3062: 3035: 2998: 2990: 2956: 2906: 2857: 2849: 2808: 2800: 2746: 2696: 2659: 2641: 2576: 2537: 2500: 2490: 2435: 2354: 2346: 2299: 2263: 2220: 2185: 2146: 2085: 2075: 1968: 1931: 1915: 1840: 1830: 1781: 1726: 1667: 1608: 1478: 1468: 1365: 1319: 1276: 1266: 1218: 1210: 1154: 1071: 1055: 724: 723:

This power law formula applies to the "average" brain of mammals taken as a whole, but each

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DeSilva, Jeremy M.; Traniello, James F. A.; Claxton, Alexander G.; Fannin, Luke D. (2021).

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Proponents of recent changes in brain size draw attention to the gene mutation that causes

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is around 1.3 to 1.5 kg (2.9 to 3.3 lb). Brain size tends to vary according to

640: 607:(40-69%), and environmental factors influencing several medial brain areas. In addition, 287:

Specimens of analysis on human brain size over 9.8-million-years shown in the image above

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of its skull reveals that its brain volume was only 417 cm, less than that of even

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Kaplan, Jonathan Michael; Pigliucci, Massimo; Banta, Joshua Alexander (1 August 2015).

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Luders, Eileen; Narr, Katherine L.; Thompson, Paul M.; Toga, Arthur W. (March 2009).

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Kamin, Leon J.; Omari, Safiya (September 1998). "Race, Head Size, and Intelligence".

2158: 1507:"When and why did human brains decrease in size 3,000 years ago? Ants may hold clues" 1003: 794: 632: 568: 451: 318: 265: 4139: 3827: 3678: 3560: 3510: 3280: 3213: 2716: 2598: 2455: 2275: 2232: 2107: 1628: 4493: 4408: 3741: 3339: 3312: 3186: 3144:"Penn Study Finds Gray Matter Density Increases During Adolescence - Penn Medicine" 2926: 2766: 1988: 1746: 1687: 1214: 1199:"Evolving Knowledge of Sex Differences in Brain Structure, Function, and Chemistry" 1174: 934: 852:

In an attempt to use cranial capacity as an objective indicator of brain size, the

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cm at least 160,000 years ago. This is greater than the average of modern humans.

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Holloway, Ralph L. (1996). "Toward a synthetic theory of human brain evolution".

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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becomes more flexed with increasing brain size relative to basicranial length.

526:, height, and weight, Kelly (2007) indicates women have a higher percentage of 486: 4173: 3544: 3372:

Armstrong, E (17 June 1983). "Relative brain size and metabolism in mammals".

2174:"Gould on Morton, Redux: What can the debate reveal about the limits of data?" 1972: 1786: 1761: 878: 740: 3524:

Finlay, Barbara L.; Darlington, Richard B.; Nicastro, Nicholas (April 2001).

2732:"A Voxel-Based Morphometric Study of Ageing in 465 Normal Adult Human Brains" 2350: 2150: 1980: 1927: 1379: 1370: 1353: 1290: 1271: 1254: 1067: 765:, which became extinct about 40,000 years ago, had larger brains than modern 3772: 3393: 2701:

10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970728)384:2<312::AID-CNE10>3.0.CO;2-K

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Hoppe, Christian; Stojanovic, Jelena (August 2008). "High-Aptitude Minds".

3012: 2918: 2871: 2822: 2758: 2750: 2673: 2590: 2581: 2564: 2549: 2514: 2447: 2368: 2311: 2197: 2099: 1945: 1870:"A rat had basically no brain—but it could still see, hear, smell and feel" 1854: 1795: 1738: 1679: 1620: 1492: 1232: 1166: 1085: 1059: 538:. There is high variability between individuals in these studies, however. 3780: 3401: 2708: 2528:

Giedd, Jay N. (April 2008). "The Teen Brain: Insights from Neuroimaging".

1414: 1393:

Henneberg, Maciej (1988). "Decrease of human skull size in the Holocene".

235:. The volume of the human brain has increased as humans have evolved (see 3649:

Roth, G; Dicke, U (May 2005). "Evolution of the brain and intelligence".

2028:"Lost Research Notes Clear up Racial Bias Debate in Old Skull Size Study" 1197:

Cosgrove, Kelly P.; Mazure, Carolyn M.; Staley, Julie K. (October 2007).

732: 728: 712: 684: 559: 507: 490:

Average brain weight for males and females over lifespan. From the study

4182: 2655: 1730: 1671: 1406: 838:

proportions it was found Neanderthals had brains 15-22% smaller than in

3863: 3481:

Roth G, Dicke U (May 2005). "Evolution of the brain and intelligence".

3066: 1643: 1281: 892: 884: 818: 704: 420: 404: 137: 4055:"160,000-year-old fossil may be the first Denisovan skull we've found" 3725: 2804: 3170:"Anatomical Traces of Vocabulary Acquisition in the Adolescent Brain" 2910: 2838:"Evolution of the human ASPM gene, a major determinant of brain size" 2173: 408: 268:

of distributed cognition, social organization, division of labor and

149: 145: 4265: 3953:"People at darker, higher latitudes evolved bigger eyes and brains" 3934:"BBC News - Dark winters 'led to bigger human brains and eyeballs'" 2267: 1642:

Sutikna, Thomas; Tocheri, Matthew W.; et al. (30 March 2016).

805:

Cranial capacity is a measure of the volume of the interior of the

2303: 2139:

The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

835: 822:

dimensions, packing methods or occasionally radiological methods.

814: 806: 782: 700: 216: 208: 3982:

Pearce, Eiluned; Stringer, Chris; Dunbar, R. I. M. (7 May 2013).

778: 739:

mammals (the great majority) have relatively larger brains than

4269: 612:

have been identified or suggested, but they await replication.

1321:"If Modern Humans Are So Smart, Why Are Our Brains Shrinking?" 865: 747:. The encephalization quotient for humans is between 7.4-7.8. 153: 29: 471:

and attempts to demonstrate a racial intellectual hierarchy.

2003:"Remarkable story of maths genius who had almost no brain" 1705:

type OH 7 suggests deep-rooted species diversity in early

1582: 1580: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1248: 1246: 1244: 1242: 789:

are quite intelligent even though they have small brains.

3841:

Logan, Corina J.; Palmstrom, Christin R. (11 June 2015).

2892:"Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments" 575:, whereas in women there is increased volume loss in the 3794:

Logan, Corina J.; Clutton-Brock, Tim H. (January 2013).

3988:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2622:"Gender differences in human cortical synaptic density" 492:

Changes in brain weights during the span of human life.

3417:"The predominance of quarter-power scaling in biology" 3229:"Changes in Gray Matter Induced by Learning—Revisited" 2972: 2970: 2569:

Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology

691:'s 1.5 to 1.7 kg (3.3 to 3.7 lb), whereas a 687:'s brain weighs just over 5 kg (11 lb), a 4507: 4466: 4391: 4303: 4033:"Exclusive: Neanderthal 'minibrains' grown in dish" 2565:"Structure of the Cerebral Cortex in Men and Women" 2372: 1760:Baeckens, Simon; Van Damme, Raoul (20 April 2020). 136:is a frequent topic of study within the fields of 4248:"How Humans Ended Up With Freakishly Huge Brains" 4140:http://www.columbia.edu/~rlh2/available_pdfs.html 1557:Brown, Graham; Fairfax, Stephanie; Sarao, Nidhi. 439:without significant increases in predation risk. 4048: 4046: 2885: 2883: 2881: 622:Neuroscience and intelligence § Brain size 225:From early primates to hominids and finally to 190:is typically larger than the left, whereas the 1533:"Why human brains were bigger 3,000 years ago" 703:. Averaging brain weight across all orders of 140:, biological anthropology, animal science and 4281: 887:: 340–752 cm (20.7–45.9 cu in) 881:: 275–500 cm (16.8–30.5 cu in) 875:: 275–500 cm (16.8–30.5 cu in) 8: 3526:"Developmental structure in brain evolution" 2979:"Neuroanatomical correlates of intelligence" 2042:"The disturbing return of scientific racism" 683:, weighing about 8 kg (18 lb). An 603:volumes (90-95%), moderate estimates in the 3694:"Size isn't everything: The big brain myth" 2057: 2055: 1192: 1190: 1188: 1186: 1184: 4288: 4274: 4266: 1253:Villmoare, Brian; Grabowski, Mark (2022). 530:, whereas men have a higher percentage of 4181: 4007: 3977: 3975: 3909: 3872: 3862: 3761:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3626:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198523901.003.0003 3440: 3321: 3311: 3262: 3252: 3195: 3185: 3055:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3002: 2861: 2812: 2663: 2645: 2580: 2504: 2494: 2358: 2089: 2079: 1935: 1844: 1834: 1809:Herculano-Houzel, Suzana (1 March 2011). 1785: 1644:"Revised stratigraphy and chronology for 1482: 1472: 1369: 1280: 1270: 1222: 1120:Parent, A; Carpenter MB (1995). "Ch. 1". 1075: 654:A study in 2017 find that the density in 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 4136:http://www.columbia.edu/~rlh2/PartII.pdf 2119: 2117: 485: 290: 282: 274: 167:The relationship between brain size and 3458:Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence 2127:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 2062:Mitchell, Paul Wolff (4 October 2018). 1036:"The evolution of mammalian brain size" 1025: 514:, while women have a relatively larger 3355:"The Technium: Brains of White Matter" 3118:Personality and Individual Differences 3091:Personality and Individual Differences 279:Trends in hominin brain size evolution 239:), starting from about 600 cm in 56:Please improve this article by adding 4070: 4068: 3040:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0808-60 1589:"The Brain of LB1, Homo floresiensis" 7: 3714:The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1430:"No, the human brain did not shrink" 1428:Corless, Victoria (18 August 2022). 999:List of animals by number of neurons 2213:South African Journal of Psychology 3898:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 1358:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 1318:McAuliffe, Kathleen (2011-01-20). 1259:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 25: 4246:Jabr, Ferris (28 November 2015). 646:Research measuring brain volume, 643:, which is involved in language. 162:neuroimaging intelligence testing 4548: 4547: 4053:Michael Marshall (Feb 5, 2022). 3442:10.1111/j.0269-8463.2004.00856.x 2836:Zhang, Jianzhi (December 2003). 2689:Journal of Comparative Neurology 2542:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.01.007 2428:Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 1006:— includes historical discussion 679:The largest brains are those of 34: 4230:THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN HEAD 4215:THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN HEAD 3692:Motluk, Alison (28 July 2010). 454:, such as what was reported by 3483:Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 3313:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5722-07.2008 3187:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4442-06.2007 2393:Kelley Hays; David S. (1998). 1215:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001 1122:Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy 541:However, Yaki (2011) found no 1: 4530:Neuroscience and intelligence 3533:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1159:10.1016/s0920-9964(02)00502-9 1010:Neuroscience and intelligence 58:secondary or tertiary sources 4097:10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103119 3812:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.10.015 3651:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3254:10.1371/journal.pone.0002669 3130:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00043-6 3103:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90283-6 2995:10.1016/j.intell.2008.07.002 2961:10.1016/j.intell.2004.11.005 2530:Journal of Adolescent Health 2496:10.1371/journal.pone.0022734 2396:Reader in Gender archaeology 2339:Postgraduate Medical Journal 2081:10.1371/journal.pbio.2007008 1836:10.1371/journal.pone.0017514 1474:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020126 860:Examples of cranial capacity 258:externalization of knowledge 4031:Cohen, Jon (20 June 2018). 2854:10.1093/genetics/165.4.2063 2190:10.1016/j.shpsc.2015.01.001 264:, partly via the advent of 4590: 4077:Journal of Human Evolution 3920:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.235 3712:scaled-up primate brain". 3663:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005 3618:Origins of the Human Brain 3583:Journal of Human Evolution 3495:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005 3456:Jerison, Harry J. (1973). 2440:10.1016/j.jocn.2005.02.013 2225:10.1177/008124639802800301 1920:10.1038/s41598-019-53042-3 1648:at Liang Bua in Indonesia" 1124:. Williams & Wilkins. 959:Australopithecus africanus 951:Australopithecus afarensis 943:Australopithecus anamensis 840:anatomically-modern humans 775:number of cortical neurons 619: 390: 202: 4543: 4326:Cognitive bias in animals 4174:10.1038/s41586-019-1513-8 3951:Alok Jha (27 July 2011). 3545:10.1017/S0140525X01003958 1973:10.1007/s13752-015-0219-x 1787:10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.029 900:Anatomically-modern human 543:statistically significant 221:...and for the last 30 ka 4525:Encephalization quotient 4520:Brain-to-body mass ratio 4142:for further references). 3028:Scientific American Mind 2351:10.1136/pgmj.2005.036665 2151:10.1177/0002716215586558 1371:10.3389/fevo.2021.742639 1272:10.3389/fevo.2022.963568 994:Encephalization quotient 989:Brain-to-body mass ratio 854:encephalization quotient 745:encephalization quotient 504:brain-to-body mass ratio 292:Brain sizes of hominids 172:conditions and events. 3773:10.1002/ajpa.1330980413 3394:10.1126/science.6407108 3300:Journal of Neuroscience 3174:Journal of Neuroscience 2647:10.1073/pnas.0803652105 1874:Northeastern University 1613:10.1126/science.1109727 463:Biogeographic variation 199:Variation and evolution 4371:Tool use by non-humans 4361:Observational learning 4000:10.1098/rspb.2013.0168 3603:10.1006/jhev.1996.0021 2751:10.1006/nimg.2001.0786 2335:"Ageing and the brain" 1565:. Tree of Life Project 1147:Schizophrenia Research 1060:10.1126/sciadv.abe2101 494: 288: 280: 270:sharing of information 245:up to 1680 cm in 222: 214: 205:Evolution of the brain 192:cerebellar hemispheres 45:relies excessively on 4499:Pain in invertebrates 4336:Comparative cognition 3800:Behavioural Processes 2899:American Psychologist 2125:The Mismeasure of Man 2123:Gould, S. J. (1981). 1762:"The island syndrome" 1434:Advanced Science News 1203:Biological Psychiatry 975:Paranthropus robustus 489: 450:Exceptional cases of 355:Homo neanderthalensis 286: 278: 262:group decision-making 247:Homo neanderthalensis 220: 212: 186:In humans, the right 4316:Animal consciousness 4311:Animal communication 3148:www.pennmedicine.org 2582:10.1093/jnen/61.1.46 2256:Current Anthropology 1326:DiscoverMagazine.com 718:basal metabolic rate 595:have indicated high 587:Genetic contribution 558:volume, whereas the 522:. When covaried for 437:basal metabolic rate 343:Homo heidelbergensis 272:as possible causes. 4489:Pain in crustaceans 4484:Pain in cephalopods 4366:Primate archaeology 4228:Lieberman, Daniel. 4213:Lieberman, Daniel. 4166:2019Natur.573..214H 4089:2022JHumE.16303119W 3845:Quiscalus mexicanus 3595:1996JHumE..30..243K 3433:2004FuEco..18..257S 3386:1983Sci...220.1302A 3380:(4603): 1302–1304. 3245:2008PLoSO...3.2669D 2793:Human Brain Mapping 2638:2008PNAS..10514615A 2632:(38): 14615–14619. 2487:2011PLoSO...622734T 2333:Peters, R. (2006). 2292:Nature Neuroscience 1912:2019NatSR...916479F 1827:2011PLoSO...617514H 1778:2020CBio...30.R338B 1731:10.1038/nature14224 1723:2015Natur.519...83S 1672:10.1038/nature17179 1664:2016Natur.532..366S 1605:2005Sci...308..242F 1052:2021SciA....7.2101S 967:Paranthropus boisei 536:cerebrospinal fluid 524:intracranial volume 407:from the island of 293: 188:cerebral hemisphere 4474:Pain in amphibians 4341:Emotion in animals 4331:Cognitive ethology 3994:(1758): 20130168. 3864:10.7717/peerj.1000 3620:. pp. 42–54. 3460:. Academic Press. 3421:Functional Ecology 3067:10.1002/ajpa.10092 1900:Scientific Reports 946:; 365–370 cm 938:; 850–1100 cm 689:bottlenose dolphin 495: 291: 289: 281: 223: 215: 4561: 4560: 4535:Number of neurons 4508:Relation to brain 4160:(7773): 214–219. 3726:10.1002/cne.21974 3635:978-0-19-852390-1 3467:978-0-12-385250-2 3306:(16): 4210–4215. 2805:10.1002/hbm.20398 1961:Biological Theory 1646:Homo floresiensis 1599:(5719): 242–245. 1559:"Human Evolution" 1531:Baraniuk, Chris. 1305:"Neanderthal man" 1131:978-0-683-06752-1 609:lateral ventricle 469:scientific racism 400:Homo floresiensis 388: 387: 379:Homo floresiensis 134:size of the brain 130: 129: 122: 104: 16:(Redirected from 4581: 4551: 4550: 4297:Animal cognition 4290: 4283: 4276: 4267: 4262: 4260: 4258: 4234: 4233: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4185: 4149: 4143: 4132: 4126: 4123: 4117: 4116: 4072: 4063: 4062: 4050: 4041: 4040: 4028: 4022: 4021: 4011: 3979: 3970: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3948: 3942: 3941: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3913: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3876: 3866: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3646: 3640: 3639: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3569: 3563:. 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Archived from 2362: 2330: 2324: 2323: 2286: 2280: 2279: 2253: 2243: 2237: 2236: 2208: 2202: 2201: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2134: 2128: 2121: 2112: 2111: 2093: 2083: 2074:(10): e2007008. 2059: 2050: 2049: 2038: 2032: 2031: 2024: 2018: 2017: 2015: 2013: 1999: 1993: 1992: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1939: 1891: 1885: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1865: 1859: 1858: 1848: 1838: 1806: 1800: 1799: 1789: 1772:(8): R329–R339. 1757: 1751: 1750: 1698: 1692: 1691: 1639: 1633: 1632: 1584: 1575: 1574: 1572: 1570: 1554: 1548: 1547: 1545: 1543: 1528: 1522: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1503: 1497: 1496: 1486: 1476: 1451: 1445: 1444: 1442: 1440: 1425: 1419: 1418: 1390: 1384: 1383: 1373: 1349: 1336: 1335: 1333: 1332: 1323: 1315: 1309: 1308: 1301: 1295: 1294: 1284: 1274: 1250: 1237: 1236: 1226: 1194: 1179: 1178: 1142: 1136: 1135: 1117: 1111: 1110: 1108: 1107: 1096: 1090: 1089: 1079: 1040:Science Advances 1030: 929: 915: 905: 848: 801:Cranial capacity 552:synaptic pruning 392:H. floresiensis' 300:Brain size (cm) 294: 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 21: 18:Cranial Capacity 4589: 4588: 4584: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4579: 4578: 4564: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4539: 4503: 4479:Pain in animals 4462: 4387: 4321:Animal language 4299: 4294: 4256: 4254: 4245: 4242: 4240:Further reading 4237: 4227: 4226: 4222: 4212: 4211: 4207: 4151: 4150: 4146: 4133: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4074: 4073: 4066: 4052: 4051: 4044: 4030: 4029: 4025: 3981: 3980: 3973: 3968: 3964: 3950: 3949: 3945: 3940:. 27 July 2011. 3932: 3931: 3927: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3840: 3839: 3835: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3758: 3757: 3753: 3710: 3709: 3705: 3691: 3690: 3686: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3567: 3528: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3455: 3454: 3450: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3371: 3370: 3366: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3293: 3292: 3288: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3152: 3150: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3115: 3114: 3110: 3087: 3086: 3082: 3052: 3051: 3047: 3025: 3024: 3020: 2976: 2975: 2968: 2946: 2945: 2941: 2933: 2894: 2889: 2888: 2879: 2835: 2834: 2830: 2786: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2734: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2686: 2685: 2681: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2562: 2561: 2557: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2468: 2467: 2463: 2425: 2424: 2420: 2411: 2409: 2407: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2378: 2376: 2332: 2331: 2327: 2298:(10): 861–863. 2288: 2287: 2283: 2251: 2245: 2244: 2240: 2210: 2209: 2205: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2122: 2115: 2061: 2060: 2053: 2040: 2039: 2035: 2026: 2025: 2021: 2011: 2009: 2007:The Irish Times 2001: 2000: 1996: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1893: 1892: 1888: 1878: 1876: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1808: 1807: 1803: 1766:Current Biology 1759: 1758: 1754: 1717:(7541): 83–86. 1700: 1699: 1695: 1658:(7599): 366–9. 1641: 1640: 1636: 1586: 1585: 1578: 1568: 1566: 1556: 1555: 1551: 1541: 1539: 1530: 1529: 1525: 1515: 1513: 1505: 1504: 1500: 1453: 1452: 1448: 1438: 1436: 1427: 1426: 1422: 1392: 1391: 1387: 1351: 1350: 1339: 1330: 1328: 1317: 1316: 1312: 1303: 1302: 1298: 1252: 1251: 1240: 1196: 1195: 1182: 1144: 1143: 1139: 1132: 1119: 1118: 1114: 1105: 1103: 1098: 1097: 1093: 1032: 1031: 1027: 1023: 985: 927: 913: 903: 846: 803: 707:, it follows a 677: 664:neuroplasticity 624: 618: 589: 484: 465: 448: 442: 432:island syndrome 396: 207: 201: 184: 126: 115: 109: 106: 63: 61: 55: 51:primary sources 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4587: 4585: 4577: 4576: 4566: 4565: 4559: 4558: 4556: 4555: 4544: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4511: 4509: 4505: 4504: 4502: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4470: 4468: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4454: 4453: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4412: 4411: 4406: 4395: 4393: 4389: 4388: 4386: 4385: 4383:Vocal learning 4380: 4379: 4378: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4300: 4295: 4293: 4292: 4285: 4278: 4270: 4264: 4263: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4235: 4232:. p. 435. 4220: 4217:. p. 433. 4205: 4144: 4127: 4118: 4064: 4042: 4023: 3971: 3962: 3943: 3925: 3911:10.1.1.186.102 3904:(2): 235–294. 3888: 3833: 3786: 3767:(4): 575–593. 3751: 3720:(5): 532–541. 3703: 3684: 3657:(5): 250–257. 3641: 3634: 3608: 3589:(3): 243–276. 3573: 3570:on 2019-02-25. 3539:(2): 263–278. 3516: 3473: 3466: 3448: 3427:(2): 257–282. 3407: 3364: 3345: 3286: 3219: 3160: 3135: 3124:(1): 113–115. 3108: 3097:(3): 357–367. 3080: 3061:(4): 341–358. 3045: 3018: 2989:(2): 156–163. 2966: 2955:(4): 337–346. 2939: 2936:on 2019-12-30. 2905:(2): 130–159. 2877: 2828: 2799:(6): 464–473. 2779: 2776:on 2020-11-17. 2722: 2695:(2): 312–320. 2679: 2612: 2555: 2536:(4): 335–343. 2520: 2461: 2418: 2405: 2385: 2325: 2281: 2268:10.1086/203138 2238: 2219:(3): 119–128. 2203: 2164: 2129: 2113: 2051: 2033: 2019: 1994: 1967:(4): 336–342. 1951: 1886: 1868:Bracci, Aria. 1860: 1801: 1752: 1693: 1634: 1576: 1549: 1523: 1498: 1446: 1420: 1401:(3): 395–405. 1385: 1337: 1310: 1296: 1238: 1209:(8): 847–855. 1180: 1137: 1130: 1112: 1091: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1001: 996: 991: 984: 981: 980: 979: 971: 963: 955: 954:; 438 cm 947: 939: 931: 926:ago): ca. 1700 917: 907: 902:: average 1473 889: 888: 882: 876: 802: 799: 676: 673: 617: 614: 588: 585: 581:parietal lobes 573:temporal lobes 500:neuron density 483: 480: 464: 461: 459:requirements. 447: 444: 395: 389: 386: 385: 382: 374: 373: 370: 362: 361: 358: 350: 349: 346: 338: 337: 334: 326: 325: 322: 314: 313: 310: 302: 301: 298: 266:social systems 200: 197: 183: 180: 128: 127: 42: 40: 33: 27:Topic of study 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4586: 4575: 4572: 4571: 4569: 4554: 4546: 4545: 4542: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4465: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4449: 4448: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4401: 4400: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4390: 4384: 4381: 4377: 4374: 4373: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4356:Neuroethology 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4291: 4286: 4284: 4279: 4277: 4272: 4271: 4268: 4253: 4249: 4244: 4243: 4239: 4231: 4224: 4221: 4216: 4209: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4148: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4131: 4128: 4122: 4119: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4071: 4069: 4065: 4060: 4059:New Scientist 4056: 4049: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4034: 4027: 4024: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3978: 3976: 3972: 3966: 3963: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3944: 3939: 3935: 3929: 3926: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3892: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3846: 3837: 3834: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3755: 3752: 3748: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3707: 3704: 3699: 3698:New Scientist 3695: 3688: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3642: 3637: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3612: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3574: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3527: 3520: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3474: 3469: 3463: 3459: 3452: 3449: 3443: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3353:Kevin Kelly. 3349: 3346: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3290: 3287: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3223: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3161: 3149: 3145: 3139: 3136: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3112: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3084: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3049: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3022: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2973: 2971: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2943: 2940: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2893: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2829: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2783: 2780: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2733: 2726: 2723: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2683: 2680: 2675: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2559: 2556: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2524: 2521: 2516: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2481:(7): e22734. 2480: 2476: 2472: 2465: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2419: 2408: 2406:9780415173605 2402: 2399:. Routlegde. 2398: 2397: 2389: 2386: 2375:on 2013-07-15 2374: 2370: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2345:(964): 84–8. 2344: 2340: 2336: 2329: 2326: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2304:10.1038/13158 2301: 2297: 2293: 2285: 2282: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2250: 2242: 2239: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2207: 2204: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2168: 2165: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2133: 2130: 2126: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2043: 2037: 2034: 2029: 2023: 2020: 2008: 2004: 1998: 1995: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1955: 1952: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1887: 1875: 1871: 1864: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1821:(3): e17514. 1820: 1816: 1812: 1805: 1802: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1756: 1753: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1697: 1694: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1647: 1638: 1635: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1564: 1560: 1553: 1550: 1538: 1534: 1527: 1524: 1512: 1508: 1502: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1450: 1447: 1435: 1431: 1424: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1395:Human Biology 1389: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1338: 1327: 1322: 1314: 1311: 1307:. infoplease. 1306: 1300: 1297: 1292: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1249: 1247: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1193: 1191: 1189: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1141: 1138: 1133: 1127: 1123: 1116: 1113: 1101: 1095: 1092: 1087: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1029: 1026: 1020: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 986: 982: 977: 976: 972: 969: 968: 964: 961: 960: 956: 953: 952: 948: 945: 944: 940: 937: 936: 932: 925: 921: 918: 911: 908: 901: 898: 897: 896: 895: 894: 886: 883: 880: 877: 874: 871: 870: 869: 868: 867: 862: 861: 857: 855: 850: 843: 841: 837: 833: 827: 823: 820: 816: 812: 808: 800: 798: 796: 790: 788: 784: 780: 776: 770: 768: 764: 759: 758: 753: 748: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 721: 719: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 675:Other animals 674: 672: 669: 665: 660: 657: 652: 649: 644: 642: 638: 634: 633:parietal lobe 630: 623: 615: 613: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 586: 584: 582: 578: 574: 570: 569:frontal lobes 564: 561: 557: 553: 547: 544: 539: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 493: 488: 481: 479: 475: 472: 470: 462: 460: 457: 453: 452:hydrocephalus 446:Hydrocephalus 445: 443: 440: 438: 434: 433: 428: 427: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 401: 393: 383: 381: 380: 376: 375: 371: 369: 368: 364: 363: 359: 357: 356: 352: 351: 347: 345: 344: 340: 339: 335: 333: 332: 328: 327: 323: 321: 320: 319:Homo ergaster 316: 315: 311: 309: 308: 304: 303: 299: 296: 295: 285: 277: 273: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 250: 248: 244: 243: 238: 234: 230: 229: 219: 211: 206: 198: 196: 193: 189: 181: 179: 176: 173: 170: 165: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 124: 121: 113: 102: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 81: 78: 74: 71: – 70: 66: 65:Find sources: 59: 53: 52: 48: 43:This article 41: 37: 32: 31: 19: 4514: 4494:Pain in fish 4392:Intelligence 4255:. Retrieved 4251: 4229: 4223: 4214: 4208: 4183:11585/697577 4157: 4153: 4147: 4130: 4121: 4080: 4076: 4058: 4036: 4026: 3991: 3987: 3965: 3957:the Guardian 3956: 3946: 3937: 3928: 3901: 3897: 3891: 3854: 3850: 3844: 3836: 3803: 3799: 3789: 3764: 3760: 3754: 3745: 3717: 3713: 3706: 3697: 3687: 3654: 3650: 3644: 3617: 3611: 3586: 3582: 3576: 3565:the original 3536: 3532: 3519: 3489:(5): 250–7. 3486: 3482: 3476: 3457: 3451: 3424: 3420: 3410: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3358: 3348: 3303: 3299: 3289: 3239:(7): e2669. 3236: 3232: 3222: 3177: 3173: 3163: 3151:. Retrieved 3147: 3138: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3058: 3054: 3048: 3034:(4): 60–67. 3031: 3027: 3021: 2986: 2983:Intelligence 2982: 2952: 2949:Intelligence 2948: 2942: 2931:the original 2902: 2898: 2845: 2841: 2831: 2796: 2792: 2782: 2771:the original 2745:(1): 21–36. 2742: 2738: 2725: 2692: 2688: 2682: 2629: 2625: 2615: 2575:(1): 46–57. 2572: 2568: 2558: 2533: 2529: 2523: 2478: 2474: 2464: 2434:(1): 60–72. 2431: 2427: 2421: 2410:. 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Retrieved 1102:. 2021-04-28 1094: 1043: 1039: 1028: 973: 965: 962:452 cm 957: 949: 941: 935:Homo erectus 933: 922:(160 to 200 910:Neanderthals 891: 890: 864: 863: 859: 858: 851: 844: 832:Homo sapiens 831: 828: 824: 804: 791: 787:grey parrots 771: 767:Homo sapiens 766: 763:Neanderthals 757:Homo sapiens 755: 749: 722: 681:sperm whales 678: 661: 653: 645: 641:Broca's area 637:frontal lobe 629:frontal lobe 625: 616:Intelligence 601:frontal lobe 597:heritability 593:twin studies 590: 565: 548: 540: 532:white matter 512:hypothalamus 496: 491: 476: 473: 466: 449: 441: 430: 426:Homo habilis 424: 398: 397: 391: 377: 367:Homo sapiens 365: 353: 341: 331:Homo erectus 329: 317: 307:Homo habilis 305: 254:microcephaly 251: 242:Homo habilis 240: 233:Homo sapiens 232: 228:Homo sapiens 226: 224: 185: 177: 174: 169:intelligence 166: 158:skull volume 133: 131: 116: 107: 97: 90: 83: 76: 69:"Brain size" 64: 44: 4351:Mirror test 4257:29 November 3806:: 143–146. 2012:22 November 1879:22 November 1542:2 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