397:), a fitness advantage that allowed them to become an invasive species. A study by Fewell and Bertram was conducted to understand the source of these differences. The differences in fitness strategy were thought to be accounted for by the fact that African worker bees have a greater preference for pollen over nectar, which is a direct food resource for the emerging brood. Another important factor was thought to be differences between the species in age polyethism, or the allotment of different tasks as a honey bee ages. Young worker bees focus on in-hive assistance such as brood care, and the relatively younger African bee populations were thought to be one explanation for the emphasis on reproduction and colony expansion in the species. The study was also interested in the role different colony social environments and different genetic variation might play in the fitness discrepancies between the two subspecies.
343:
301:
have died as a result of 100–300 stings, it has been estimated that the average lethal dose for an adult is 500–1,100 bee stings. In terms of industrial honey production, in its natural habitat and the neo-tropics, the
African bee produces far more honey than its European counterparts. It is unclear if this is due to a superior nectar gathering ability, lack of adaptability in the European honey bees for tropical environment, or both. Producing more swarms and absconding (abandoning its nest) are also examples of adaptive traits for tropical environment. In times of prolonged dearth they would migrate to a better food source area, a strategy applied also by
406:
438:
A bee population must strike a balance in the distribution of resources towards the growth of the current colony members versus reproduction. If too much energy is expended on the maintenance of an adult colony, the bees will lose the chance to expand through reproduction but they will have older workers who specialize in nectar resources for energy (honey.) If too much energy is spent on reproduction, such a colony will be less equipped to survive drastic seasonal changes because they have younger workers who specialize in pollen for feeding the brood, not energy storage.
31:
447:
and it is more evolutionarily favorable for them to store nectar and honey. African bees are more vulnerable to less predictable times of scarcity or attack and it is therefore to their advantage to produce as many young as possible, increasing the likelihood that some or even many will survive. Such circumstances would have favored the worker bees who preferred harvesting nectar in
European colonies and pollen in African colonies, providing an explanation for how a divergence in worker behavior and age distribution evolved in
184:
49:
370:
advantage is so great that it is still more energetically favorable for a honey bee to collect warm nectar, even at low sugar concentrations (10%). Honey bees are energetically rewarded by harvesting nectar that is warmer than ambient temperatures because they make up for energy loss during foraging and obtain more nectar more easily.
307:, rather than waiting for a better season (European and Oriental bees). The lack of significant energy needs for thermoregulation of the brood nest in the tropics corresponds to a very rapid build-up of even the smallest african colonies, the higher in numbers and smaller in size swarming strategy makes perfect sense.
588:
preserving the propagation of their genes and contributing to their inclusive fitness. The parasitic model is more advantageous by comparison because it allows workers to directly reproduce offspring that are more closely related to them and greater in number, so they are a component of direct fitness.
623:
The underlying hypothesis for the aggressive behavior of East
African lowland honey bees is based on the idea that this race of bees evolved in an arid environment, where the bees' food was scarce. Under this situation, selection favored more aggressive colonies, which protected their food source and
582:
The multifaceted aspect of communication in social insects makes social insect colonies easy to hijack. Especially in the case of closely related species and subspecies, the biology and organization of potential host species are similar to that of potential parasitizing species, making them easier to
518:
Although many pheromones contribute to reproduction, pheromones made in the mandibular gland of queens have been closely linked to reproduction, and they are produced by workers that reproduce. The pheromones prevent others from attacking them, induce workers to recognize them as queen, and give them
446:
These two strategies have been adopted by the
European and African bees, respectively. European bees must survive the winter, an annual event with predictable mortality outcomes. Trying to meet the energetic needs of the colony and reproduction might decrease their overall survival during the winter
437:
Over time, distributions of the genotypic traits for worker food preference must have clustered around those conferring a proclivity towards resources that improved the fitness of the subspecies. The balancing of evolutionary costs and benefits have shaped the distribution of these genotypic traits.
369:
It appears that the cost of harvesting less-viscous nectar is that it is also less concentrated in sugar and would be an energetic loss for the honey bees. However, this is not the case; the speed of harvesting nectar with less viscosity increases the quantity harvested at a given time. The relative
300:
than a single
European bee sting, though East African lowland honey bees respond more quickly when disturbed than do European honey bees. They send out three to four times as many workers in response to a threat. They will also pursue an intruder for a greater distance from the hive. Although people
481:
queen. Social parasitism in the social insects can involve various forms of exploitation that disrupt the normal division of labor in the colony. The recent development of technology to study the genetic makeup of colonies has revealed that the offspring contribution of reproducing worker parasites
418:
reproductive rate. For example, having fewer or relatively older workers who prefer nectar means that the colony will not have the resources available to rapidly or efficiently feed new broods. Worker food preferences have been connected to genotypic variation at specific quantitative trait loci.
328:
includes the southern and eastern regions of Africa. The species was first imported across the
Atlantic Ocean to Brazil before it spread to Central America, South America, and southern areas of the United States. The Africanized honey bee thrives in tropical areas and is not well adapted for cold
361:
Nectar that is highly concentrated in sugar is more viscous and therefore reduces the speed of consumption and the size of honey bee crop loads. In cooler ambient temperatures, harvesting small, concentrated quantities of nectar does not allow honey bees to maintain the metabolism necessary for
587:
worker parasites is an example of an alternative evolutionary strategy that allows them to increase their "direct fitness in foreign colonies rather than inclusive fitness in their natal nests." Workers usually focus their efforts on raising and caring for larvae that are related to them, thus
573:
workers are able to disregard host queen signals. Pheromonal differences between the subspecies is a subject that requires more in-depth investigation to understand how such parasitization is made possible. As mandibular pheromones were a focus of the
Dietemann et al. study it is probable that
353:
Honey bees are challenged to balance energy consumption and replenishment in their pursuit of nectar. High thoracic temperatures required for foraging flight pose a thermoregulatory imbalance that honey bees attempt to alleviate by targeting particular viscosities and temperatures of nectar
417:
workers focused on pollen processing behaviors while
European workers focused on nectar processing behaviors. African bees were also more likely to store pollen while European bees stored honey. The study found that worker food preferences determined whether the colony maintained a certain
260:
into northern South Africa poses a threat to East
African lowland honey bees. If a female worker from a Cape honey bee colony enters an East African lowland honey bee nest, she is not attacked, partly due to her resemblance to the East African lowland honey bee queen. As she is capable of
607:. Organisms evolve reproductive strategies that ensure the survival and propagation of the organisms’ genes. Successful reproductive strategies cope with particular economic constraints experienced by the organism. The parasitic relationship between
527:
queen. The worker parasites and their increasing number of clones become the sole reproductive individuals in the colony. The destruction of the division of labor leads to reduced resources that eventually force the colony to leave or perish.
429:, and this is thought to be related to the fact that African colonies have a younger, skewed age distribution by comparison. However, this is not a direct cause for the different subsistence strategies between the two subspecies.
315:
The appearance of the East
African lowland honey bee is very similar to the European bee. However, the East African lowland honey bee is slightly smaller. Its upper body is covered in fuzz, and its abdomen is striped with black.
455:. Fewell and Bertram’s study is significant in that it provides a plausible method through which the fitness characteristics of the subspecies could have evolved from a small number of behavioral differences in worker bees.
501:
colonies in northern South Africa. The monopoly of this single lineage shows that they were able to subvert queen regulation of reproduction and worker recognition mechanisms. Dietemann et al. was able to prove that
362:
foraging flight. Harvesting warmer, less-viscous nectar is advantageous because of the energy gained by heat. Honey bees are able to stabilize their body temperature and make up for the energy lost by flying. In
540:
may have gained evolutionary advantage because, compared to other related species, it is not susceptible to the host queen’s pheromonal reproductive suppression of workers. The non-invasive varieties of
173:
413:
The main difference found between African and European honey bees were a few behavioral traits in the worker bees that were all related to the workers’ food preference. It was found that
624:
hive from predators and robbed bees from other colonies. This behavior allowed more aggressive colonies to survive where the less aggressive colonies eventually were selected against by
615:
is an example of how a normally successful strategy of chemical recognition and maintenance of a reproductive division of labor can be undermined by competing, exploitative strategies.
366:, it was found that crop loads were largely contained in the abdomen, though it remains unclear whether this balances out the aforementioned energy loss from the thorax during flight.
583:
infiltrate. On the other hand, potential parasites face the challenge of being discovered by the host queen, usually the sole reproductive individual in the colony. The existence of
1621:
373:
The bumblebee’s ability to differentiate flower warmth by color and target warmer flowers is one noted precedent for nectar temperature selection in honey bees.
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342:
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queen signal correctly or a resistance to the signal. Ultimately this is an interesting example of a preexisting weakness towards social parasitism by
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Hartel, S; Neumann P; Raassen FS; Moritz RFA; Hepburn HR (2006). "Social parasitism by Cape honeybee workers in colonies of their own subspecies (
280:
workers are greatly under-represented in the foraging force), the death of the queen, and, before queen death, competition for egg laying between
1441:
Hoover, SER; Higo HA; Winston ML (2006). "Worker honeybee ovary development seasonal variation and the influence of larval and adult nutrition".
1594:
1353:
Dietemann, Vincent; Jochen Pflugfelder; Stephan Hartel; Peter Neumann; Robin M. Crewe (6 October 2006). "Social parasitism by honeybee workers (
700:
1905:
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1543:
1088:
1032:
Fewell, Jennifer H.; Susan M. Bertram (2002). "Evidence for genetic variation in worker task performance by African and European honeybees".
739:
986:
Winston, ML; OR Taylor; GW Otis (1983). "Some differences between temperate European and tropical African and South American honeybees".
510:
queens while in their presence. The resulting breakdown of the division of labor leads to desertion or death of the parasitized colony.
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1614:
405:
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produce less mandibular secretions than the invasive strain. In addition, they produce secretions that are not as similar to that of
2403:
2087:
1289:
637:
2413:
2279:
2140:
886:
Heyneman, AJ (1983). "Optimal sugar concentrations of floral nectars: dependence on sugar intake efficiency and foraging costs".
2145:
2408:
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Neumann, P; Moritz RFA (2002). "The Cape honeybee phenomenon: they sympatric evolution of a social parasite in real-time".
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reproduction, she may begin laying eggs which hatch as "clones" of herself, which will also lay eggs, causing the
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resources. In lower environmental temperatures where energy loss is more pronounced, it has been shown through
358:
that honey bees seek warmer, less-concentrated and less-viscous nectar, an energetically favorable behavior.
241:. It is native to central, southern and eastern Africa, though at the southern extreme it is replaced by the
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1960:
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1842:
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465:
257:
48:
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1807:
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1400:
Hartel, S; Neumann P; Kryger P; von der Heide C; Moltzer G-J; Crewe RM; van Praagh JP; Moritz RFA (2006).
157:
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895:
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workers to increase in number. The death of the host colony results from the dwindling numbers of
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1501:
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43:
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queens, suggesting that quality or content of pheromones rather than quantity may explain how
392:
238:
134:
1568:
1912:
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1493:
1450:
1421:
1366:
1318:
1258:
1211:
1170:
1155:"Genetic variation in worker temporal polyethism and colony defensiveness in the honey bee,
1125:
1117:
1076:
1041:
995:
950:
903:
868:
827:
819:
2375:
855:
Shafir S., Afik O (2007). "Effect of ambient temperature on crop loading in the honey bee,
808:"Honeybees prefer warmer nectar and less viscous nectar, regardless of sugar concentration"
2357:
2008:
1964:
1712:
1067:
Page, RE; Robinson GE (1991). "The genetics of division of labour in honey bee colonies".
347:
262:
250:
385:
have higher rates of colony growth, reproduction, and swarming than European honey bees (
1207:
899:
872:
553:
to and greater ability to mimic and overwhelm the pheromonal regulation by host queens.
519:
access to higher quality foods. They also stop other workers from turning reproductive.
2013:
1988:
1972:
1869:
1758:
1722:
1130:
1105:
832:
807:
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queens as that of the invasive strain. The single lineage was selected for its greater
242:
207:
1599:
1080:
425:
bees begin foraging for pollen significantly earlier than their European counterparts
2392:
938:
249:). This subspecies has been determined to constitute one part of the ancestry of the
1561:
1505:
1330:
1231:
1053:
923:
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1717:
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1386:
999:
775:
677:
303:
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972:
477:
workers produce crucial pheromones, achieve reproductive status, and overthrow an
1279:
663:
Ruttner, F. 1988: Biogeography and Taxonomy of Honeybees. Springer Verlag, Berlin
2331:
2292:
2225:
1983:
1927:
1814:
1737:
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1153:
Giray, T; Guzman-Novoa E; Aron CW; Zelinsky B; Fahrbach SE; Robinson GE (2000).
386:
100:
2216:
1247:"Spatial distribution and nesting biology of colonies of the African honey bee"
506:
worker parasites were able to produce mandibular pheromones that mimic that of
409:
East African lowland worker bees entering and exiting a nest in a rock crevasse
2018:
2003:
1998:
1978:
1885:
1650:
1497:
1454:
1370:
1322:
1045:
574:
different glands contribute to the pheromones related to reproductive status.
234:
1175:
1154:
755:
Fletcher, David J.C. (2009). "African(ized) Bees: Their History and Future".
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1993:
1956:
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80:
60:
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841:
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806:
Nicolson, Susan; Leo de Veer; Angela Kohler; Christian W. W. Pirk (2013).
2240:
2210:
1922:
1890:
297:
253:(also known as "killer bees") spreading through North and South America.
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1378:
2245:
2051:
1948:
1895:
1676:
1215:
907:
2297:
1943:
1357:
Esch.): Evidence for pheromonal resistance to host queen's signals".
1106:"Major quantitative trait loci affecting honey bee foraging behavior"
346:
East African lowland worker bees foraging on pollen of an introduced
110:
90:
70:
2187:
955:
2258:
1900:
404:
341:
216: contact zone where the two subspecies overlap and hybridize
2191:
1603:
937:
AG, Dyer; Whitney HM; Arnold SEJ; Glover BJ; Chittka L (2006).
595:
succeeded either because of an inability to recognize the host
1968:
1190:
Seeley, TD (1978). "Life history strategy of the honey bee,
671:
669:
473:
hosts in the southern region of South Africa. Specifically,
1538:. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 307–33.
469:(the Cape honey bee) has monopolized social parasitism of
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
728:
The "African" Honey Bee. The processes of Africanization
812:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
801:
799:
797:
795:
793:
1406:
swarms by socially parasitic Cape honeybee workers (
523:
worker parasites create female clones and usurp the
2200:
2154:
2096:
2075:
2027:
1936:
1878:
1705:
1669:
1638:
296:A single East African lowland bee sting is no more
1348:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1340:
284:workers and the queen. When the colony dies, the
1567:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.
1615:
489:colonies were moved into the vicinity of the
8:
1104:Hunt, G; Page R; Fondrk M; Dullum C (1995).
2188:
1622:
1608:
1600:
939:"Bees associate warmth with floral colour"
182:
29:
20:
1425:
1262:
1174:
1129:
954:
831:
682:Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce
578:Evolutionary advantages and disadvantages
288:females will seek out a new host colony.
706:From laying workers to social parasites
421:African bees are "precocious foragers";
16:Subspecies of honey bee native to Africa
702:Moritz, R.F.A (2002) The Cape honeybee
656:
433:Trade-offs of two different strategies
276:workers that perform foraging duties (
1536:An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology
7:
720:
718:
716:
565:queens produce more pheromones than
442:Evolution of life history strategies
1486:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1443:Journal of Comparative Physiology B
1359:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1034:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
725:Rinderer, TE; Hellmich, RL (1981).
536:The single lineage of parasitizing
329:areas that receive heavy rainfall.
38:Worker bee (female) drinking water
14:
1706:Subspecies, Breeds and Phenotypes
1519:Holldobler, B; Wilson EO (1990).
532:Evolution of pheromone production
333:Foraging economics and bee habits
1245:McNally, L; Schneider S (1996).
47:
493:subspecies. Ten years later, a
24:East African lowland honey bee
1692:Bee learning and communication
1284:. Princeton University Press.
1000:10.1080/0005772X.1983.11097902
225:East African lowland honey bee
198:East African lowland honey bee
1:
1595:Apidologie.org — African Bees
1081:10.1016/s0065-2806(08)60093-4
1069:Advances in Insect Physiology
873:10.1127/entom.gen/29/2007/135
338:Nectar content and harvesting
1534:Davies, Nicholas B. (2012).
1278:Schmid-Hempel, Paul (1998).
778:. Smithsonian Marine Station
497:was found to be devastating
495:single clonal…worker lineage
383:A. mellifera scutellata
1836:Apis mellifera sinisxinyuan
1281:Parasites in Social Insects
1122:10.1093/genetics/141.4.1537
776:"Apis mellifera scutellata"
678:"Apis mellifera scutellata"
394:A. mellifera mellifera
388:A. mellifera ligustica
2435:
475:A. mellifera capensis
191:The natural ranges of the
2419:Insects described in 1836
2232:Apis mellifera scutellata
2202:Apis mellifera scutellata
2177:Honeybee Discovery Center
2088:Diseases of the honey bee
1815:Apis mellifera scutellata
1633:types and characteristics
1559:Dawkins, Richard (2006).
1498:10.1007/s00265-002-0518-7
1455:10.1007/s00360-005-0032-0
1404:Apis mellifera scutellata
1371:10.1007/s00265-006-0222-0
1323:10.1007/s00040-005-0857-2
1046:10.1007/s00265-002-0501-3
482:merits closer attention.
471:Apis mellifera scutellata
415:Apis mellifera scutellata
356:Apis mellifera scutellata
326:Apis mellifera scutellata
230:Apis mellifera scutellata
190:
181:
167:Apis mellifera scutellata
163:
156:
44:Scientific classification
42:
37:
28:
23:
2404:Western honey bee breeds
2155:Museums and insectariums
2067:Colony collapse disorder
2042:Varroa sensitive hygiene
1822:Apis mellifera siciliana
1801:Apis mellifera monticola
1787:Apis mellifera pomonella
1773:Apis mellifera artemisia
1766:Apis mellifera adansonii
1251:Environmental Entomology
859:(Hymenoptera: Apidae)".
708:Apidologie Special Issue
591:The invasive lineage of
377:Significance of foraging
256:The introduction of the
2414:Insects of South Africa
1961:Horizontal top-bar hive
1864:Apis mellifera unicolor
1843:Apis mellifera sossimai
1829:Apis mellifera simensis
1408:Apis mellifera capensis
1402:"Infestation levels of
1355:Apis mellifera capensis
1307:Apis mellifera capensis
704:Apis mellifera capensis
561:It was discovered that
466:Apis mellifera capensis
381:It has been noted that
247:Apis mellifera capensis
2028:Parasites and diseases
1857:Apis mellifera taurica
1850:Apis mellifera syriaca
1808:Apis mellifera remipes
1780:Apis mellifera litorea
1176:10.1093/beheco/11.1.44
824:10.1098/rspb.2013.1597
557:Pheromonal differences
410:
401:Behavioral differences
350:
324:The native habitat of
2409:Hymenoptera of Africa
1427:10.1051/apido:2006012
861:Entomologia Generalis
609:A. m. scutellata
605:A. m. scutellata
597:A. m. scutellata
563:A. m. scutellata
547:A. m. scutellata
525:A. m. scutellata
508:A. m. scutellata
499:A. m. scutellata
491:A. m. scutellata
479:A. m. scutellata
449:A. m. scutellata
423:A. m. scutellata
408:
364:A. m. scutellata
345:
274:A. m. scutellata
149:A. m. scutellata
2167:Bee Museum of Rhodes
2083:Topics in beekeeping
1682:Honey bee life cycle
757:American Bee Journal
453:A. m. ligustica
427:A. m. ligustica
2162:Malacca Bee Gallery
2062:Deformed wing virus
1953:BS National Beehive
1794:Apis mellifera meda
1728:Carniolan honey bee
1264:10.1093/ee/25.3.643
1208:1978Oecol..32..109S
900:1983Oecol..60..198H
613:A. m. capensis
601:A. m. capensis
593:A. m. capensis
585:A. m. capensis
571:A. m. capensis
567:A. m. capensis
543:A. m. capensis
538:A. m. capensis
521:A. m. capensis
504:A. m. capensis
487:A. m. capensis
282:A. m. capensis
278:A. m. capensis
270:A. m. capensis
2057:American foulbrood
1216:10.1007/bf00344695
1163:Behavioral Ecology
908:10.1007/bf00379522
514:Method and results
411:
351:
2386:
2385:
2371:Open Tree of Life
2194:Taxon identifiers
2185:
2184:
2047:Small hive beetle
2036:Varroa destructor
1753:Western honey bee
1748:Russian honey bee
1743:Maltese honey bee
1733:European dark bee
1656:Laying worker bee
1578:978-0-19-929115-1
1545:978-1-4051-1416-5
1090:978-0-12-024223-8
741:978-0-429-30874-1
646:Western honey bee
626:natural selection
239:western honey bee
221:
220:
135:A. mellifera
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2189:
1913:Honey extraction
1906:Alcoholic drinks
1624:
1617:
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1601:
1583:
1582:
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1563:The Selfish Gene
1556:
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1311:Insectes Sociaux
1302:
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1236:
1235:
1187:
1181:
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1178:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1133:
1116:(4): 1537–1545.
1101:
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1029:
1004:
1003:
983:
977:
976:
958:
934:
928:
927:
883:
877:
876:
867:(2–4): 135–148.
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752:
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251:Africanized bees
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33:
21:
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1492:(4): 271–281.
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1336:
1317:(2): 183–193.
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1192:Apis mellifera
1182:
1157:Apis mellifera
1145:
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1040:(4): 318–325.
1005:
978:
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857:Apis mellifera
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710:33 (2), 99–244
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676:Masterson, J.
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2399:Apis (genus)
2201:
2172:Honey Museum
2099:by countries
2035:
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1827:
1820:
1813:
1806:
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1757:
1718:Buckfast bee
1562:
1554:
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1520:
1514:
1489:
1485:
1479:
1449:(1): 55–63.
1446:
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860:
856:
850:
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811:
780:. Retrieved
769:
760:
756:
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727:
707:
703:
696:
685:. Retrieved
681:
659:
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314:
304:Apis dorsata
302:
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255:
246:
229:
228:
224:
222:
197:
166:
164:
148:
147:
143:Subspecies:
133:
121:
18:
2332:NatureServe
2293:iNaturalist
2226:Wikispecies
2131:New Zealand
2097:Beekeeping
1984:Honey super
1928:Royal jelly
1879:Cultivation
1738:Italian bee
1523:. Springer.
1420:: 462–470.
1257:: 643–652.
1075:: 118–169.
101:Hymenoptera
2393:Categories
2019:Jenter kit
2004:Bee smoker
1999:Queen clip
1979:Hive frame
1886:Beekeeping
1677:Bee colony
1670:Life cycle
1651:Worker bee
1639:Bee castes
1414:Apidologie
782:1 November
687:2013-12-08
652:References
551:resistance
311:Appearance
235:subspecies
206: the
174:Lepeletier
81:Arthropoda
2106:Australia
1994:Hive tool
1957:Flow Hive
1937:Equipment
1918:Honeycomb
1661:Drone bee
1646:Queen bee
1631:Honey bee
1309:Esch.)".
1196:Oecologia
1169:: 44–55.
994:: 12–21.
988:Bee World
888:Oecologia
619:Evolution
292:Character
267:parasitic
210:, and the
129:Species:
67:Kingdom:
61:Eukaryota
2337:2.858897
2272:11044201
2241:BugGuide
2217:Q2034820
2211:Wikidata
1923:Propolis
1891:Apiology
1697:Swarming
1521:The Ants
1506:12117374
1463:16228242
1379:25063876
1331:44927091
1232:12784020
1224:28308672
1110:Genetics
1054:22128779
965:16885975
924:32118291
916:28310487
842:23902913
632:See also
298:venomous
286:capensis
107:Family:
77:Phylum:
71:Animalia
57:Domain:
2324:1131133
2136:Ukraine
2121:Ireland
2111:Hungary
2052:Waxworm
1949:Beehive
1896:Beeswax
1471:8253649
1410:Esch.)"
1387:1218222
1204:Bibcode
1140:8601492
1131:1206885
896:Bibcode
833:3735266
320:Habitat
237:of the
233:) is a
117:Genus:
97:Order:
91:Insecta
87:Class:
2363:235082
2350:212527
2298:121322
2259:APISMZ
1944:Apiary
1575:
1542:
1504:
1469:
1461:
1385:
1377:
1329:
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1230:
1222:
1138:
1128:
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1052:
973:432440
971:
963:
943:Nature
922:
914:
840:
830:
738:
214:
204:
196:
194:
176:, 1836
111:Apidae
2376:85741
2246:96155
2126:Nepal
2116:India
2076:Lists
1901:Honey
1687:Brood
1571:–88.
1502:S2CID
1467:S2CID
1383:S2CID
1375:JSTOR
1327:S2CID
1228:S2CID
1050:S2CID
969:S2CID
920:S2CID
732:(PDF)
2345:NCBI
2319:ITIS
2311:6362
2280:GISD
2267:GBIF
2254:EPPO
1573:ISBN
1540:ISBN
1459:PMID
1286:ISBN
1220:PMID
1136:PMID
1085:ISBN
961:PMID
912:PMID
838:PMID
784:2013
736:ISBN
611:and
463:The
451:and
391:and
223:The
122:Apis
2306:ISC
2285:325
1969:Nuc
1494:doi
1451:doi
1447:176
1422:doi
1367:doi
1319:doi
1259:doi
1212:doi
1194:".
1171:doi
1126:PMC
1118:doi
1114:141
1077:doi
1042:doi
996:doi
951:doi
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904:doi
869:doi
828:PMC
820:doi
816:280
761:149
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603:in
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2360::
2347::
2334::
2321::
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2243::
2228::
2213::
1971:,
1967:-
1963:,
1959:,
1955:,
1569:66
1500:.
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1488:.
1465:.
1457:.
1445:.
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1373:.
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1325:.
1315:53
1313:.
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1253:.
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1200:32
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1124:.
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1008:^
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910:.
902:.
892:60
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814:.
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