Consequentialism - Knowledge (XXG)

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situation. However, if this approach is naïvely adopted, then moral agents who, for example, recklessly fail to reflect on their situation, and act in a way that brings about terrible results, could be said to be acting in a morally justifiable way. Acting in a situation without first informing oneself of the circumstances of the situation can lead to even the most well-intended actions yielding miserable consequences. As a result, it could be argued that there is a moral imperative for agents to inform themselves as much as possible about a situation before judging the appropriate course of action. This imperative, of course, is derived from consequential thinking: a better-informed agent is able to bring about better consequences.

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consequences, and not who produces them, that are said to matter. Williams argues that this demands too much of moral agents—since (he claims) consequentialism demands that they be willing to sacrifice any and all personal projects and commitments in any given circumstance in order to pursue the most beneficent course of action possible. He argues further that consequentialism fails to make sense of intuitions that it can matter whether or not someone is personally the author of a particular consequence. For example, that participating in a crime can matter, even if the crime would have been committed anyway, or would even have been worse, without the agent's participation.

1324:. For example, a lazy person might justify rejecting a request to help a friend by arguing that, due to her lazy character, she would not have done the work anyway, even if she had accepted the request. By rejecting the offer right away, she managed at least not to waste anyone's time. Actualists might even consider her behavior praiseworthy since she did what, according to actualism, she ought to have done. This seems to be a very easy way to "get off the hook" that is avoided by possibilism. But possibilism has to face the objection that in some cases it sanctions and even recommends what actually leads to the worst outcome. 1616:, that lying from "benevolent motives," here the motive to maximize the good consequences by protecting the intended victim, should then make the liar responsible for the consequences of the act. For example, it could be that by misdirecting the inquiring murder away from where one thought the intended victim was actually directed the murder to the intended victim. That such an act is immoral mirrors Anscombe's objection to Sidgwick that his consequentialism would problematically absolve the consequentalist of moral responsibility when the consequentalist fails to foresee the true consequences of an act. 1317:

the whole bag is finished, which would result in a terrible stomach ache and would be the worst alternative. Not eating any cookies at all, on the other hand, would be the second-best alternative. Now the question is: should Gifre eat the first cookie or not? Actualists are only concerned with the actual consequences. According to them, Gifre should not eat any cookies at all since it is better than the alternative leading to a stomach ache. Possibilists, however, contend that the best possible course of action involves eating the first cookie and this is therefore what Gifre should do.

811: 31: 7027: 5819: 1641:—have attempted to develop a form of consequentialism that acknowledges and avoids the objections raised by Williams. Railton argues that Williams's criticisms can be avoided by adopting a form of consequentialism in which moral decisions are to be determined by the sort of life that they express. On his account, the agent should choose the sort of life that will, on the whole, produce the best overall effects. 1328:

cookie and stopping afterward only is an option for Gifre if she has the rational capacity to repress her temptation to continue eating. If the temptation is irrepressible then this course of action is not considered to be an option and is therefore not relevant when assessing what the best alternative is. Portmore suggests that, given this adjustment, we should prefer a view very closely associated with

58: 1530:. Whereas consequentialist theories posit that consequences of action should be the primary focus of our thinking about ethics, virtue ethics insists that it is the character rather than the consequences of actions that should be the focal point. Some virtue ethicists hold that consequentialist theories totally disregard the development and importance of moral character. For example, 1580:. There is an abysmal contrast between conduct that follows the maxim of an ethic of ultimate ends — that is in religious terms, "the Christian does rightly and leaves the results with the Lord" — and conduct that follows the maxim of an ethic of responsibility, in which case one has to give an account of the foreseeable results of one's action. 1546: 5806: 72: 1327:

Douglas W. Portmore has suggested that these and other problems of actualism and possibilism can be avoided by constraining what counts as a genuine alternative for the agent. On his view, it is a requirement that the agent has rational control over the event in question. For example, eating only one

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For example, assume that Gifre has the choice between two alternatives, eating a cookie or not eating anything. Having eaten the first cookie, Gifre could stop eating cookies, which is the best alternative. But after having tasted one cookie, Gifre would freely decide to continue eating cookies until

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These two approaches could be reconciled by acknowledging the tension between an agent's interests as an individual and as a member of various groups, and seeking to somehow optimize among all of these interests. For example, it may be meaningful to speak of an action as being good for someone as an

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do not know everything about their particular situations, and thus do not know all the possible consequences of their potential actions. For this reason, some theorists have argued that consequentialist theories can only require agents to choose the best action in line with what they know about the

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Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to

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observer, who would grasp all the consequences of any action, to an ideally informed observer, who knows as much as could reasonably be expected, but not necessarily all the circumstances or all the possible consequences. Consequentialist theories that adopt this paradigm hold that right action is

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he best argument for rule-consequentialism is not that it derives from an overarching commitment to maximise the good. The best argument for rule-consequentialism is that it does a better job than its rivals of matching and tying together our moral convictions, as well as offering us help with our

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One of the most common objections to rule-consequentialism is that it is incoherent, because it is based on the consequentialist principle that what we should be concerned with is maximizing the good, but then it tells us not to act to maximize the good, but to follow rules (even in cases where we

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instead of something like the more ephemeral "pleasure". Other theories adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. As the consequentialist approach contains an inherent assumption that the outcomes of a moral decision can be quantified in terms of "goodness" or "badness," or at

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objects to the consequentialism of Sidgwick on the grounds that the moral worth of an action is premised on the predictive capabilities of the individual, relieving them of the responsibility for the "badness" of an act should they "make out a case for not having foreseen" negative consequences.

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has argued that consequentialism is alienating because it requires moral agents to put too much distance between themselves and their own projects and commitments. Williams argues that consequentialism requires moral agents to take a strictly impersonal view of all actions, since it is only the

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involves engaging in critical reasoning and considering all the possible ramifications of one's actions before making an ethical decision, but reverting to generally reliable moral rules when one is not in a position to stand back and examine the dilemma as a whole. In practice, this equates to

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that results from the motive to choose an action is better or at least as good as each alternative state of affairs that would have resulted from alternative actions. This version gives relevance to the motive of an act and links it to its consequences. An act can therefore not be wrong if the

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has developed an approach that reconciles the two schools. Other consequentialists consider effects on the character of people involved in an action when assessing consequence. Similarly, a consequentialist theory may aim at the maximization of a particular virtue or set of virtues. Finally,

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has argued that it is unreasonable that we do not give equal consideration to the interests of animals as to those of human beings when we choose the way we are to treat them. Such equal consideration does not necessarily imply identical treatment of humans and non-humans, any more than it

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consequentialism requires that we avoid bad ones. Stronger versions of negative consequentialism will require active intervention to prevent bad and ameliorate existing harm. In weaker versions, simple forbearance from acts tending to harm others is sufficient. An example of this is the

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consequentialism, according to which a full, flourishing life, which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure, is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty. However, one might fix on

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makes a similar argument against consequentialism in the case of the inquiring murder. The example asks whether or not it would be right to give false statement to an inquiring murderer in order to misdirect the individual away from the intended victim. He argues, in

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held that a certain set of minimal rules, which he calls "side-constraints," are necessary to ensure appropriate actions. There are also differences as to how absolute these moral rules are. Thus, while Nozick's side-constraints are absolute restrictions on behavior,

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moral theories such as consequentialism is the ability to produce practical moral judgements. At the very least, any moral theory needs to define the standpoint from which the goodness of the consequences are to be determined. What is primarily at stake here is the

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the act (or in some views, the rule under which it falls) will produce, will probably produce, or is intended to produce, a greater balance of good over evil than any available alternative. Different consequentialist theories differ in how they define

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Many consequentialist theories may seem primarily concerned with human beings and their relationships with other human beings. However, some philosophers argue that we should not limit our ethical consideration to the interests of human beings alone.

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consequentialism ignores the specific value a state of affairs has for any particular agent. Thus, in an agent-neutral theory, an actor's personal goals do not count any more than anyone else's goals in evaluating what action the actor should take.

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A fundamental distinction can be drawn between theories which require that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their own interests and drives, and theories which permit that agents act for ends in which they have some personal interest or

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states that people are driven by their interests and their fears, but their interests take precedence over their fears; their interests are carried out in accordance with how people view the consequences that might be involved with their interests.

881:, in his exposition of hedonistic utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure is more highly valued than the pursuit of other pleasures. However, some contemporary utilitarians, such as 724:

in the consequentialist camp, whereas, in the contemporary sense of the word, they would be classified the other way round. This is due to changes in the meaning of the word, not due to changes in perceptions of W.D. Ross's and J.S. Mill's views.

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It is the business of the benevolent man to seek to promote what is beneficial to the world and to eliminate what is harmful, and to provide a model for the world. What benefits he will carry out; what does not benefit men he will leave alone

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Ethical altruism can be seen as a consequentialist theory which prescribes that an individual take actions that have the best consequences for everyone, not necessarily including themselves (similar to selflessness). This was advocated by

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Since pure consequentialism holds that an action is to be judged solely by its result, most consequentialist theories hold that a deliberate action is no different from a deliberate decision not to act. This contrasts with the

649:): deontology, in which rules and moral duty are central, derives the rightness or wrongness of one's conduct from the character of the behaviour itself, rather than the outcomes of the conduct. It is also contrasted with both 876:

is the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory. This form of utilitarianism holds that what matters is the aggregate happiness; the happiness of everyone, and not the happiness of any particular person.

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proposes a theory that recognizes the importance of certain rules, but these rules are not absolute. That is, they may be violated if strict adherence to the rule would lead to much more undesirable consequences.

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Moral action always has consequences for certain people or things. Varieties of consequentialism can be differentiated by the beneficiary of the good consequences. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?"

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Kant, I.: 1898, ‘On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives’, In: T.K. Abbott (trans.), Kant's Critique of Practical Reason and Other Works on the Theory of Ethics. London: Longmans, Green and

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it, or the rule under which it falls, produces, will probably produce, or is intended to produce, a greater balance of good over evil than any alternative act. This concept is exemplified by the famous

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the general welfare of society for two reasons: because individuals know how to please themselves best, and because if everyone were an austere altruist then general welfare would inevitably decrease.

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In general, consequentialist theories focus on actions. However, this need not be the case. Rule consequentialism is a theory that is sometimes seen as an attempt to reconcile consequentialism with

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involves following certain rules. However, rule consequentialism chooses rules based on the consequences that the selection of those rules has. Rule consequentialism exists in the forms of

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We must be clear about the fact that all ethically oriented conduct may be guided by one of two fundamentally differing and irreconcilably opposed maxims: conduct can be oriented to an

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of that conduct. Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right act (including omission from acting) is one that will produce a good outcome. Consequentialism, along with

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is an important factor that makes it more difficult to predict the ethical value of consequences, even though most would agree that only predictable consequences are charged with a

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One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences count as good states of affairs. According to

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adhering to rule consequentialism when one can only reason on an intuitive level, and to act consequentialism when in a position to stand back and reason on a more critical level.

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The normative status of an action depends on its consequences according to consequentialism. The consequences of the actions of an agent may include other actions by this agent.

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Ethical egoism can be understood as a consequentialist theory according to which the consequences for the individual agent are taken to matter more than any other result. Thus,

3278: 1017:, Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BCE, is the "world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of 1305:

disagree on how later possible actions impact the normative status of the current action by the same agent. Actualists assert that it is only relevant what the agent

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argued for a theory that is mostly consequentialist, but incorporates inviolable "side-constraints" which restrict the sort of actions agents are permitted to do.

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decision to act was based on a right motive. A possible inference is that one can not be blamed for mistaken judgments if the motivation was to do good.

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actually do later for assessing the value of an alternative. Possibilists, on the other hand, hold that we should also take into account what the agent

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some sort of good consequences. However, negative utilitarianism lays out a consequentialist theory that focuses solely on minimizing bad consequences.

684:, which are commonly considered a "deontological" concept, can only be justified with reference to the consequences of having those rights. Similarly, 909:, or rules-based ethics—and in some cases, this is stated as a criticism of rule consequentialism. Like deontology, rule consequentialism holds that 3177: 716:" in 1958. However, the meaning of the word has changed over the time since Anscombe used it: in the sense she coined it, she had explicitly placed 6828: 2462: 791:

good or bad, rather than good or bad because of extrinsic factors (such as the act's consequences or the moral character of the person who acts).

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following Foot's lead, one might adopt a sort of consequentialism that argues that virtuous activity ultimately produces the best consequences.

2484: 1376:, a critic of utilitarianism, argues that utilitarianism, in common with other forms of consequentialism, relies on the perspective of such an 1066: 3387:

Originally a speech at Munich University, 1918. Published as "Politik als Beruf," (Munich: Duncker & Humblodt, 1919). Later in Max Weber,

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consequentialism, on the other hand, focuses on the particular needs of the moral agent. Thus, in an agent-focused account, such as one that

2445:"he advocated a form of state consequentialism, which sought to maximize three basic goods: the wealth, order, and population of the state 1896: 6844: 3725: 3706: 3687: 1013: 2565:

The goods that serve as criteria of morality are collective or public, in contrast, for instance, to individual happiness or well-being

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argument, which encourages others to avoid a specified act on the grounds that it may ultimately lead to undesirable consequences.

5856: 5701: 2878: 1830: 767: 551: 525: 5731: 3753: 2648: 1729: 1107:. The importance of outcomes that are good for the community outweigh the importance of individual pleasure and pain. The term 665:: advancing collectively as a society over the course of many lifetimes, such that any moral criterion is subject to revision. 387: 6812: 5757: 4917: 1534:

argues that consequences in themselves have no ethical content, unless it has been provided by a virtue such as benevolence.

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The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions

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in this sense, one can interpret Xunzi's political philosophy as a form of state utilitarianism or state consequentialism

1372:(selfless) account of consequentialism, is to employ an ideal, neutral observer from which moral judgements can be made. 1011:

that evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how much it contributes to the welfare of a state. According to the

6876: 6836: 6749: 5736: 5641: 5289: 4006: 1048:, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability; "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to 520: 1320:

One counterintuitive consequence of actualism is that agents can avoid moral obligations simply by having an imperfect

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Often "negative" consequentialist theories assert that reducing suffering is more important than increasing pleasure.

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avoids this objection by not basing his form of rule-consequentialism on the ideal of maximizing the good. He writes:

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Various theorists are split as to whether the rules are the only determinant of moral behavior or not. For example,

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described Hooker's book as the "best statement and defence, so far, of one of the most important moral theories."

7066: 7056: 7051: 6995: 5613: 3825: 3815: 3416: 3260: 3258:. 2007. "Can Utilitarianism Be Distributive? Maximization and Distribution as Criteria in Managerial Decisions." 2139: 1233: 887: 872: 856: 852: 631: 272: 7011: 6498: 6155: 5911: 5716: 5279: 4529: 4369: 4366: 4092: 3926: 3911: 2747: 1185: 860: 750: 608: 149: 1294:

This section is about actualism and possibilism in ethics. For actualism and possibilism in metaphysics, see

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will prescribe actions that may be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral to the welfare of others. Some, like

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Gregersen, Hal B., and Lee Sailer. 1993. "Chaos theory and its implications for social science research."

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Stables, Andrew (2016). "Responsibility beyond rationality: The case for rhizomatic consequentialism".

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In practice, it is very difficult, and at times arguably impossible, to adopt the point of view of an

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argued that, in practice, when understood properly, rule consequentialism, Kantian deontology, and

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Another consequentialist application view is motive consequentialism, which looks at whether the

1061: 749:, 'science') argue that the moral value of any act consists in its tendency to produce things of 448: 354: 314: 309: 294: 284: 277: 228: 223: 201: 139: 2196: 3733: 2579: 2494: 1385:

the action that will bring about the best consequences from this ideal observer's perspective.

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How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time: Solving the Riddle of Right and Wrong

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non-psychological goods as the relevant effect. Thus, one might pursue an increase in

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writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more

867:" is required for the experience of pleasure or pain to have an ethical significance. 778:

i.e. if a goal is morally important enough, any method of achieving it is acceptable.

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as the sole moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are...

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outlines, the agent might be concerned with the general welfare, but the agent is

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One major difference between these two approaches is the agent's responsibility.

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However, consequentialism and virtue ethics need not be entirely antagonistic.

1424:. These are called "agent-neutral" and "agent-focused" theories respectively. 1196:—in which the morality of an action is determined by that action's effects—and 657:

rather than on the nature or consequences of the act (or omission) itself, and

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One common tactic among consequentialists, particularly those committed to an

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consequentialism demands that we bring about good states of affairs, whereas

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Consequences of Compassion: An interpretation and Defense of Buddhist Ethics

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concerned with the immediate welfare of herself and her friends and family.

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their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think...

584: 4544: 2845: 2287: 2236: 3538: 6970: 6935: 6569: 6554: 6478: 6473: 6438: 6428: 6341: 6276: 6250: 5149: 5056: 5021: 4979: 4967: 4755: 4549: 4449: 4392: 4196: 4150: 4034: 1810: 1485: 1380:. The particular characteristics of this ideal observer can vary from an 1369: 1203:

The two-level approach to consequentialism is most often associated with

1172: 1100: 1091:

The Mohists believed that morality is based on "promoting the benefit of

1045: 787: 759: 623: 596: 453: 34:

Every advantage in the past is judged in the light of the final issue. —

3093:

Portmore, Douglas W. (2019). "3. What's the Relevant Sort of Control?".

2685: 1568:, in which individuals act in a faithful, rather than rational, manner. 6594: 6483: 6448: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6306: 6296: 4776: 4750: 4745: 4687: 4682: 4514: 4402: 4397: 4356: 4178: 4024: 3906: 3079: 3020: 2793: 2644: 2636: 2059:

Diamond, Cora (1997), Oderberg, David S.; Laing, Jacqueline A. (eds.),

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were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a

1025: 885:, are concerned with maximizing the satisfaction of preferences, hence 662: 1099:'s views, state consequentialism is not utilitarian because it is not 6579: 6520: 6453: 6378: 6255: 5865: 5041: 4962: 4692: 4351: 4341: 4039: 3941: 1845: 1176:, and whose ethics can be summed up in the phrase "Live for others." 1140: 1057: 864: 627: 572: 400: 3094: 3071: 3055: 3038: 3012: 2996: 2955: 2919: 2785: 2628: 2807:

Haigh, Matthew; Wood, Jeffrey S.; Stewart, Andrew J. (2016-07-01).

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Di Mo; Xunzi; Di Mo Xunzi Fei Han; Professor Burton Watson (1967).

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Commonsense Consequentialism: Wherein Morality Meets Rationality

2610:"Fa (Standards: Laws) and Meaning Changes in Chinese Philosophy" 1765: 1053: 986: 775: 5838: 5500: 4242: 3780: 3742: 733:

One common view is to classify consequentialism, together with

6525: 4702: 1125:"is motivated almost totally from the ruler's point of view." 1041: 3738: 6821:

An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation

1192:

This position can be described as a reconciliation between

938:

know that breaking the rule could produce better results).

3374:. 2018. "Revisiting Max Weber's Ethic of Responsibility." 3037:

Portmore, Douglas W. (2019). "5. Rationalist Maximalism".

2065:

Human Lives: Critical Essays on Consequentialist Bioethics

1095:

and eliminating harm to all under heaven." In contrast to

5834: 3539:"Consequentialism, Moralities of Concern and Selfishness" 2374:. Oxford University Press, new edition 2002, back cover. 1447:

individual, but bad for them as a citizen of their town.

1111:

has also been applied to the political philosophy of the

611:. Consequentialists hold in general that an act is right 3734:

University of Texas. Ethics Unwrapped – Consequentialism

1614:

On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives

1472:

necessarily implies identical treatment of all humans.

676:) are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, 3179:

An Introduction to the Principles of Moral Legislation

2754:." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by 1621:

future amplification of the effects of small decisions

1484:, a good action is one that results in an increase in 785:

ethical theories, which hold that acts themselves are

2809:"Slippery slope arguments imply opposition to change" 981:: 仁之事者, 必务求于天下之利, 除天下之害, 将以为法乎天下. 利人乎, 即为; 不利人乎, 即止). 3236:

The quantification of 'happinenss' in utilitarianism

1040:." The word "order" refers to Mozi's stance against 6928: 6773: 6539: 6264: 6193: 6055: 5930: 5872: 5750: 5650: 5612: 5559: 5526: 5517: 5446: 5358: 5196: 5187: 5120: 4894: 4872: 4827: 4769: 4721: 4675: 4666: 4629: 4500: 4365: 4312: 4303: 4253: 4177: 4149: 4106: 4058: 4015: 3968: 3940: 3892: 3864: 3791: 2398:

Basic Writings of Mo Tzu, Hsün Tzu, and Han Fei Tzu

668:Some argue that consequentialist theories (such as 3512: 3395:(New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 77-128. 2547:Jay L. Garfield; William Edelglass (9 June 2011). 1938: 993:(5th century BC) (Chapter 8: Against Music Part I) 781:Teleological ethical theories are contrasted with 2425:Ivanhoe, P.J.; Van Norden, Bryan William (2005). 2067:, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 13–38, 3112:International Journal of Children's Spirituality 2907:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 1988:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 2-3. 1506:, it is an especially suited moral theory for a 859:of pain. It can be argued that the existence of 696:would all end up prescribing the same behavior. 2758:. (Winter 2015 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, 2483:Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999). 1570: 974: 823: 595:are the ultimate basis for judgement about the 2772:Adams, R. M. (1976). "Motive Utilitarianism". 2185:Deontology, Consequentialism and Moral Realism 1986:Consequentialism: New Directions, New Problems 5850: 3754: 3099:. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press. 3043:. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press. 2163:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 97 f., 104. 1522:Consequentialism can also be contrasted with 552: 8: 6797:Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel 3032: 3030: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2520:Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy 2478: 2476: 641:Consequentialism is usually contrasted with 2960:Oxford Studies in Agency and Responsibility 2954:Timmerman, Travis; Swenson, Philip (2019). 2720:"Christian Religion and National Interests" 2420: 2418: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1918: 5857: 5843: 5835: 5523: 5514: 5497: 5193: 4900: 4672: 4309: 4250: 4239: 3788: 3777: 3761: 3747: 3739: 2995:Jackson, Frank; Pargetter, Robert (1986). 2949: 2947: 2401:. Columbia University Press. p. 110. 2007: 2005: 559: 545: 126: 40: 2956:"How to Be an Actualist and Blame People" 2935: 2918:Cohen, Yishai; Timmerman, Travis (2016). 2901:Timmerman, Travis; Cohen, Yishai (2020). 2827: 2226: 2032: 1021:taken as constitutive of human welfare." 3056:"Dated Rightness and Moral Imperfection" 2427:Readings in classical Chinese philosophy 2315:"On Measuring the Moral Value of Action" 1564:is a concept in the moral philosophy of 1238:Most consequentialist theories focus on 1147:, argue that a certain degree of egoism 833:The Principles of Morals and Legislation 6829:Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals 3096:Opting for the Best: Oughts and Options 3040:Opting for the Best: Oughts and Options 2924:Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy 2553:. Oxford University Press. p. 62. 2550:The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy 2463:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1883: 324: 191: 129: 48: 2486:The Cambridge History of Ancient China 1088:, kind, and so on unproblematically." 1067:The Cambridge History of Ancient China 954:moral disagreements and uncertainties. 672:) and deontological theories (such as 653:which focuses on the character of the 603:, falls under the broader category of 3582:. New York: Oxford University Press. 3367: 3365: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2578:Deen K. Chatterjee (6 October 2011). 1349:One important characteristic of many 851:, in this account, is defined as the 587:ethical theories that holds that the 7: 2054: 2052: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1891: 1889: 1887: 1637:Some consequentialists—most notably 1460:, who is regarded as the founder of 27:Ethical theory based on consequences 6845:Elements of the Philosophy of Right 3726:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3707:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3688:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3660:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3519:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3182:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2904:Actualism and Possibilism in Ethics 2705:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2292:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1945:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1912:28 May 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020. 1024:Unlike utilitarianism, which views 1014:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3607:The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism 2972:10.1093/oso/9780198845539.003.0009 622:, with chief candidates including 25: 3446:Consequentialism and Cluelessness 3321:Medical Ethics: A Reference Guide 3150:Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong 2699:Fisher, James; Dowdwen, Bradley. 1969:. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1504:in order of increasing preference 1313:do, even if she would not do it. 817:, best known for his advocacy of 526:Social and political philosophers 7026: 7025: 5818: 5817: 5804: 2997:"Oughts, Options, and Actualism" 2879:The Open Society and Its Enemies 2863:from the original on 2018-07-19. 2732:from the original on 2006-07-06. 2654:from the original on 2022-10-10. 2368:Hooker, Brad (30 January 2003). 2215:Journal of Consciousness Studies 1941:Consequentialism and Its Critics 1831:Instrumental and intrinsic value 70: 56: 3472:Utilitarianism: For and Against 3451:Philosophy & Public Affairs 3389:Gesammelte Politische Schriften 2140:""The end justifies the means"" 753:, meaning that an act is right 720:in the nonconsequentialist and 6813:The Theory of Moral Sentiments 6183:Value monism – Value pluralism 3492:Darwall, Stephen, ed. (2002). 3393:Max Weber: Essays in Sociology 3344:Zuckerman, Phil (2019-09-10). 2920:"Actualism Has Control Issues" 2581:Encyclopedia of Global Justice 2252:Consciousness and Moral Status 1415:Agent-focused or agent-neutral 634:, and broader notions of the " 1: 3576:Portmore, Douglas W. (2011). 3297:Chandler Brett (2014-07-16). 2518:Van Norden, Bryan W. (2011). 2330:. 1993. "Utilitarianism." In 2127:"the end justifies the means" 1836:Lesser of two evils principle 6877:On the Genealogy of Morality 6837:Critique of Practical Reason 5290:Ordinary language philosophy 3348:. Counterpoint. p. 21. 2211:"The Value of Consciousness" 2157:Mizzoni, John (2009-08-31). 2144:Cambridge English Dictionary 630:, the satisfaction of one's 5340:Contemporary utilitarianism 5255:Internalism and externalism 3696:Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter. 3319:Frezzo, Eldo (2018-10-25). 3210:(2002). Helga Kuhse (ed.). 3124:10.1080/1364436042000234404 2073:10.1007/978-1-349-25098-1_2 1280:acts and omissions doctrine 770:," variously attributed to 661:which treats morality like 7083: 6805:A Treatise of Human Nature 4604:Svatantrika and Prasangika 3656:Scheffler, Samuel (1994). 3476:Cambridge University Press 3426:10.1177/001872679304600701 3054:Goldman, Holly S. (1976). 2584:. Springer. p. 1170. 2491:Cambridge University Press 2336:Cambridge University Press 1984:Seidel, Christian (2018). 1937:Scheffler, Samuel (1988). 1902:Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1856:Principle of double effect 1648: 1293: 1231: 1180:Two-level consequentialism 1158: 1132: 968: 898: 803: 7021: 5798: 5513: 5496: 4903: 4249: 4238: 3826:Philosophy of mathematics 3816:Philosophy of information 3787: 3776: 3623:10.4135/9781412965811.n60 3555:10.1017/S0031819100053432 3511:Goodman, Charles (2009). 3346:What it Means to be Moral 3261:Business Ethics Quarterly 2829:10.3758/s13421-016-0596-9 2748:Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter 2034:10.1017/S0031819100037943 2017:"Modern Moral Philosophy" 1645:Notable consequentialists 1303:Actualism and possibilism 1290:Actualism and possibilism 1234:Negative consequentialism 1228:Negative consequentialism 888:preference utilitarianism 873:hedonistic utilitarianism 795:Forms of consequentialism 273:Middle Eastern philosophy 6156:Universal prescriptivism 3323:. Routledge. p. 5. 3212:Unsanctifying Human Life 2617:Philosophy East and West 2249:Shepherd, Joshua. 2018. 2183:Thomas, A. Jean. 2015. " 861:phenomenal consciousness 5945:Artificial intelligence 5295:Postanalytic philosophy 5236:Experimental philosophy 3717:"Rule Consequentialism" 2937:10.26556/jesp.v10i3.104 2762:. Retrieved 2019-02-01. 2718:Moran, Gabriel (2006). 2456:Fraser, Chris. 2015. " 2356:Oxford University Press 2106:Encyclopedia Britannica 1816:Demandingness objection 1578:ethic of responsibility 1526:moral theories such as 1215:Motive consequentialism 1005:Mohist consequentialism 714:Modern Moral Philosophy 680:advances the idea that 5428:Social constructionism 4440:Hellenistic philosophy 3856:Theoretical philosophy 3831:Philosophy of religion 3821:Philosophy of language 3376:Perspektiven Der Ethik 3234:Simmons, H. J. 1986. " 2816:Memory & Cognition 2371:Ideal Code, Real World 2352:Ideal Code, Real World 1594: 1588:Politics as a Vocation 1574:ethic of ultimate ends 1550: 1170:, who coined the term 1109:state consequentialism 1078:David Shepherd Nivison 1038:increase in population 1000:State consequentialism 996: 971:State consequentialism 965:State consequentialism 956: 943:Ideal Code, Real World 838: 821: 597:rightness or wrongness 496:Aesthetic philosophers 38: 18:Ends justify the means 6869:The Methods of Ethics 6107:Divine command theory 6102:Ideal observer theory 5811:Philosophy portal 5330:Scientific skepticism 5310:Reformed epistemology 3836:Philosophy of science 3609:. Thousand Oaks, CA: 3597:Price, Terry (2008). 3496:. Oxford: Blackwell. 3214:. Oxford: Blackwell. 2774:Journal of Philosophy 2608:Hansen, Chad (1994). 2102:"Teleological ethics" 1965:Parfit, Derek. 2011. 1548: 1476:Value of consequences 1406:Consequences for whom 1198:rule consequentialism 1118:. On the other hand, 1113:Confucian philosopher 951: 895:Rule consequentialism 813: 77:Philosophy portal 33: 6986:Political philosophy 5231:Critical rationalism 4938:Edo neo-Confucianism 4782:Acintya bheda abheda 4761:Renaissance humanism 4472:School of the Sextii 3846:Practical philosophy 3841:Political philosophy 3060:Philosophical Review 3001:Philosophical Review 2688:on December 9, 2007. 2674:. NY: Dover (1981). 2671:The Method of Ethics 1651:List of utilitarians 1625:moral responsibility 1512:decision theoretical 1284:voluntary euthanasia 1194:act consequentialism 855:of pleasure and the 643:deontological ethics 521:Philosophers of mind 6956:Evolutionary ethics 6917:Reasons and Persons 6893:A Theory of Justice 6047:Uncertain sentience 4802:Nimbarka Sampradaya 4713:Korean Confucianism 4460:Academic Skepticism 3299:"24 and Philosophy" 3244:McMaster University 3196:on January 5, 2008. 3152:. London: Penguin. 2760:Stanford University 1897:Teleological Ethics 1742:Niccolò Machiavelli 915:rule utilitarianism 901:Rule utilitarianism 743:, 'end, purpose' + 605:teleological ethics 531:Women in philosophy 261:Indigenous American 44:Part of a series on 6951:Ethics in religion 6946:Descriptive ethics 6781:Nicomachean Ethics 5423:Post-structuralism 5325:Scientific realism 5280:Quinean naturalism 5260:Logical positivism 5216:Analytical Marxism 4435:Peripatetic school 4347:Chinese naturalism 3874:Aesthetic response 3801:Applied philosophy 3698:"Consequentialism" 3683:"Consequentialism" 3617:. pp. 91–93. 3599:"Consequentialism" 2524:Hackett Publishing 2431:Hackett Publishing 2270:20.500.12657/30007 2160:Ethics: The Basics 2129:in the Wiktionary. 2013:Anscombe, G. E. M. 1861:Situational ethics 1841:Mental reservation 1826:Effective altruism 1551: 1364:The ideal observer 1273:Acts and omissions 1186:two-level approach 1062:harmonious society 822: 224:Eastern philosophy 39: 7039: 7038: 7006:Social philosophy 6991:Population ethics 6981:Philosophy of law 6961:History of ethics 6444:Political freedom 6121:Euthyphro dilemma 5912:Suffering-focused 5832: 5831: 5794: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5786: 5785: 5492: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5484: 5483: 5211:Analytic feminism 5183: 5182: 5145:Kierkegaardianism 5107:Transcendentalism 5067:Neo-scholasticism 4913:Classical Realism 4890: 4889: 4662: 4661: 4477:Neopythagoreanism 4234: 4233: 4230: 4229: 3851:Social philosophy 3667:978-0-19-823511-8 3632:978-1-4129-6580-4 3589:978-0-19-979453-9 3526:978-0-19-537519-0 3503:978-0-631-23108-0 3242:). Hamilton, ON: 3221:978-0-631-22507-2 3189:978-0-19-820516-6 3159:978-0-14-013558-9 2681:978-0-915145-28-7 2591:978-1-4020-9159-9 2560:978-0-19-532899-8 2533:978-1-60384-468-0 2504:978-0-521-47030-8 2440:978-0-87220-780-6 2408:978-0-231-02515-7 2381:978-0-19-925657-0 2328:Williams, Bernard 2313:D'Souza, Jeevan. 2299:978-0-19-875163-2 2284:Mill, John Stuart 2209:Levy, N. (2014). 2082:978-1-349-25098-1 1952:978-0-19-875073-4 1730:Francis Hutcheson 1676:Richard B. Brandt 1602:G. E. M. Anscombe 1499:political liberty 1495:material equality 1389:The real observer 1161:Altruism (ethics) 710:G. E. M. 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C. 3462: 3458: 3440: 3436: 3420:46(7):777–802. 3417:Human Relations 3413: 3409: 3403: 3399: 3386: 3382: 3370: 3363: 3356: 3343: 3342: 3338: 3331: 3318: 3317: 3313: 3304: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3291: 3272: 3268: 3254: 3250: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3206: 3205: 3201: 3190: 3174:Bentham, Jeremy 3172: 3171: 3167: 3160: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3109: 3108: 3104: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3072:10.2307/2184275 3053: 3052: 3048: 3036: 3035: 3028: 3013:10.2307/2185591 2994: 2993: 2989: 2982: 2953: 2952: 2945: 2917: 2916: 2912: 2900: 2899: 2890: 2872: 2868: 2860: 2811: 2806: 2805: 2801: 2786:10.2307/2025783 2771: 2770: 2766: 2746: 2737: 2729: 2722: 2717: 2716: 2712: 2698: 2697: 2693: 2682: 2666:Sidgwick, Henry 2664: 2663: 2659: 2651: 2629:10.2307/1399736 2612: 2607: 2606: 2602: 2592: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2561: 2546: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2517: 2516: 2512: 2505: 2482: 2481: 2474: 2455: 2451: 2441: 2424: 2423: 2416: 2409: 2394: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2367: 2366: 2362: 2346: 2342: 2326: 2322: 2312: 2311: 2307: 2300: 2282: 2281: 2277: 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7003: 7001:Secular ethics 6998: 6996:Rehabilitation 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6932: 6930: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6922: 6914: 6906: 6898: 6890: 6882: 6874: 6866: 6861:Utilitarianism 6858: 6850: 6842: 6834: 6826: 6818: 6810: 6802: 6794: 6786: 6777: 6775: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6546: 6544: 6537: 6536: 6534: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6512: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6370: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6268: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6259: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6221:Existentialist 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6197: 6195: 6191: 6190: 6188: 6187: 6186: 6185: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6159: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6116:Constructivism 6113: 6112: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6104: 6094: 6093: 6092: 6090:Non-naturalism 6087: 6072: 6067: 6061: 6059: 6053: 6052: 6050: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5983: 5982: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5936: 5934: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5919: 5917:Utilitarianism 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5878: 5876: 5870: 5869: 5864: 5862: 5861: 5854: 5847: 5839: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5814: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5792: 5791: 5788: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5754: 5752: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5678: 5677: 5667: 5662: 5656: 5654: 5648: 5647: 5645: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5618: 5616: 5614:Middle Eastern 5610: 5609: 5607: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5565: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5532: 5530: 5521: 5511: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5494: 5493: 5490: 5489: 5486: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5478: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5450: 5448: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5378:Existentialism 5375: 5373:Deconstruction 5370: 5364: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5353: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5206:Applied ethics 5202: 5200: 5191: 5185: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5170:Nietzscheanism 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5141: 5140: 5130: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5112:Utilitarianism 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5010:Transcendental 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4977: 4976: 4975: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4948:Existentialism 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4904: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4885: 4884: 4878: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4866: 4861: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4833: 4831: 4825: 4824: 4822: 4821: 4816: 4815: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4773: 4771: 4767: 4766: 4764: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4736:Augustinianism 4733: 4727: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4716: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4679: 4677: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4660: 4659: 4657: 4656: 4651: 4649:Zoroastrianism 4646: 4641: 4635: 4633: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4623: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4571: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4554: 4553: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4506: 4504: 4498: 4497: 4495: 4494: 4492:Church Fathers 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4406: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4374: 4372: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4318: 4316: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4296: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4265: 4259: 4257: 4247: 4246: 4243: 4236: 4235: 4232: 4231: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4183: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4155: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4112: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4101: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4064: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4021: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4009: 4007:Libertarianism 4004: 4003: 4002: 3992: 3991: 3990: 3980: 3974: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3963: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3946: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3898: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3887: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3870: 3868: 3862: 3861: 3859: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3811:Metaphilosophy 3808: 3803: 3797: 3795: 3785: 3784: 3781: 3774: 3773: 3768: 3766: 3765: 3758: 3751: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3731: 3715:Hooker, Brad. 3712: 3693: 3677: 3676:External links 3674: 3673: 3672: 3666: 3653: 3631: 3615:Cato Institute 3603:Hamowy, Ronald 3594: 3588: 3573: 3535:Honderich, Ted 3531: 3525: 3508: 3502: 3487: 3484: 3481: 3480: 3456: 3434: 3407: 3397: 3380: 3361: 3355:978-1640092747 3354: 3336: 3330:978-1138581074 3329: 3311: 3289: 3266: 3264:17(4):593–611. 3248: 3227: 3220: 3199: 3188: 3165: 3158: 3137: 3118:(2): 219–225. 3102: 3085: 3066:(4): 449–487. 3046: 3026: 3007:(2): 233–255. 2987: 2980: 2943: 2910: 2888: 2866: 2822:(5): 819–836. 2799: 2780:(14): 467–81. 2764: 2735: 2710: 2691: 2680: 2657: 2623:(3): 435–488. 2600: 2590: 2570: 2559: 2539: 2532: 2526:. p. 52. 2510: 2503: 2472: 2449: 2439: 2433:. p. 60. 2414: 2407: 2387: 2380: 2360: 2340: 2320: 2305: 2298: 2289:Utilitarianism 2275: 2242: 2201: 2176: 2169: 2149: 2131: 2118: 2093: 2081: 2048: 2001: 1994: 1971: 1958: 1951: 1914: 1882: 1881: 1879: 1876: 1874: 1873: 1868: 1866:Utilitarianism 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1799: 1796:J. J. C. Smart 1793: 1787: 1784:Henry Sidgwick 1781: 1775: 1769: 1763: 1757: 1751: 1745: 1739: 1733: 1727: 1721: 1715: 1709: 1706:William Godwin 1703: 1700:David Friedman 1697: 1691: 1685: 1679: 1673: 1670:Jeremy Bentham 1667: 1664:Jonathan Baron 1661: 1654: 1646: 1643: 1598: 1595: 1582: 1555: 1552: 1519: 1516: 1482:utilitarianism 1477: 1474: 1462:utilitarianism 1458:Jeremy Bentham 1452: 1449: 1416: 1413: 1407: 1404: 1395:ideal observer 1390: 1387: 1378:ideal observer 1365: 1362: 1360:of the agent. 1357:responsibility 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1291: 1288: 1274: 1271: 1256:slippery-slope 1229: 1226: 1216: 1213: 1181: 1178: 1159:Main article: 1156: 1153: 1145:Henry Sidgwick 1135:Ethical egoism 1133:Main article: 1130: 1129:Ethical egoism 1127: 1097:Jeremy Bentham 1009:ethical theory 983: 969:Main article: 966: 963: 911:moral behavior 896: 893: 870:Historically, 842:Jeremy Bentham 828: 819:utilitarianism 815:Jeremy Bentham 806:Utilitarianism 804:Main article: 801: 800:Utilitarianism 798: 796: 793: 766:justifies the 755:if and only if 730: 729:Classification 727: 712:in her essay " 708:was coined by 701: 698: 694:contractualism 674:Kantian ethics 670:utilitarianism 614:if and only if 579:is a class of 567: 566: 564: 563: 556: 549: 541: 538: 537: 534: 533: 528: 523: 518: 516:Metaphysicians 513: 508: 503: 498: 492: 486: 485: 484: 481: 480: 477: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 444:Metaphilosophy 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 414: 413: 408: 403: 398: 392: 386: 385: 384: 381: 380: 375: 374: 373: 372: 367: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 329: 328: 322: 321: 320: 319: 318: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 282: 281: 280: 270: 269: 268: 258: 257: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 221: 220: 219: 214: 209: 196: 195: 189: 188: 187: 186: 185: 184: 179: 169: 164: 159: 154: 153: 152: 147: 134: 133: 125: 119: 118: 117: 114: 113: 111: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 65: 62: 61: 53: 52: 46: 45: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7079: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7032: 7024: 7023: 7020: 7014: 7013: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6933: 6931: 6927: 6918: 6915: 6910: 6907: 6902: 6899: 6894: 6891: 6886: 6883: 6878: 6875: 6870: 6867: 6862: 6859: 6854: 6851: 6846: 6843: 6838: 6835: 6830: 6827: 6822: 6819: 6814: 6811: 6806: 6803: 6798: 6795: 6790: 6787: 6782: 6779: 6778: 6776: 6772: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6545: 6543: 6538: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6414:Moral courage 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6354: 6353: 6352:Good and evil 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6337:Family values 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6263: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6184: 6181: 6180: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6151:Quasi-realism 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6138: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6098: 6095: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6082: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6054: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5981: 5978: 5977: 5976: 5975:Environmental 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5929: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5897:Particularism 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5877: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5860: 5855: 5853: 5848: 5846: 5841: 5840: 5837: 5825: 5824: 5815: 5813: 5812: 5801: 5800: 5797: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5755: 5753: 5751:Miscellaneous 5749: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5657: 5655: 5653: 5649: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5617: 5615: 5611: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5566: 5564: 5562: 5558: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5529: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5504: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5477: 5476: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5451: 5449: 5447:Miscellaneous 5445: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5433:Structuralism 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5418:Postmodernism 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5408:Phenomenology 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5365: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5345:Vienna Circle 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5275:Moral realism 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5201: 5199: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5186: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5077:Phenomenology 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5017:Individualism 5015: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4978: 4974: 4971: 4970: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4893: 4883: 4882:Judeo-Islamic 4880: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4871: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4859: 4858:ʿIlm al-Kalām 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4834: 4832: 4830: 4826: 4820: 4817: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4807:Shuddhadvaita 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4768: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4741:Scholasticism 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4720: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4680: 4678: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4665: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4628: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4576: 4575: 4572: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4559: 4558: 4555: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4442: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4380: 4379: 4376: 4375: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4319: 4317: 4315: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4270: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4241: 4237: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4192:Conceptualism 4190: 4188: 4185: 4184: 4182: 4180: 4176: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4121:Particularism 4119: 4117: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4105: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4088:Functionalism 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4073:Eliminativism 4071: 4069: 4066: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4057: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4008: 4005: 4001: 3998: 3997: 3996: 3993: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3978:Compatibilism 3976: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3967: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3947: 3945: 3943: 3939: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3917:Particularism 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3759: 3757: 3752: 3750: 3745: 3744: 3741: 3735: 3732: 3728: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3690: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3679: 3675: 3669: 3663: 3659: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3581: 3580: 3574: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3522: 3517: 3516: 3509: 3505: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3489: 3485: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3457: 3454:29(4):342–70. 3453: 3452: 3447: 3443: 3442:Lenman, James 3438: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3418: 3411: 3408: 3401: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3372:Siebeck, Mohr 3368: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3326: 3322: 3315: 3312: 3300: 3293: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3267: 3263: 3262: 3257: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3223: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3208:Singer, Peter 3203: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3185: 3181: 3180: 3175: 3169: 3166: 3161: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3146:Mackie, J. L. 3141: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3106: 3103: 3098: 3097: 3089: 3086: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3050: 3047: 3042: 3041: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2988: 2983: 2981:9780198845539 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2914: 2911: 2906: 2905: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2889: 2886:. pp. 284–85. 2885: 2881: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2867: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2810: 2803: 2800: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2728: 2721: 2714: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2695: 2692: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2673: 2672: 2667: 2661: 2658: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2611: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2587: 2583: 2582: 2574: 2571: 2566: 2562: 2556: 2552: 2551: 2543: 2540: 2535: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2514: 2511: 2506: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2487: 2479: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2464: 2459: 2453: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2410: 2404: 2400: 2399: 2391: 2388: 2383: 2377: 2373: 2372: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2324: 2321: 2316: 2309: 2306: 2301: 2295: 2291: 2290: 2285: 2279: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2262: 2261:9781315396347 2258: 2255:. Routledge. 2254: 2253: 2246: 2243: 2238: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2205: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2180: 2177: 2172: 2170:9781405189941 2166: 2162: 2161: 2153: 2150: 2145: 2141: 2135: 2132: 2128: 2122: 2119: 2107: 2103: 2097: 2094: 2084: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2030: 2027:(124): 1–19. 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2008: 2006: 2002: 1997: 1995:9780190270124 1991: 1987: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1962: 1959: 1954: 1948: 1943: 1942: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1909: 1904: 1903: 1898: 1892: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1877: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1851:Omission bias 1849: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1822: 1821:Dharma-yuddha 1819: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1808: 1803: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1778:Peter Railton 1776: 1773: 1772:Philip Pettit 1770: 1768:(470–391 BCE) 1767: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1719: 1718:John Harsanyi 1716: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1655: 1652: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1639:Peter Railton 1635: 1632: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1617: 1615: 1610: 1609:Immanuel Kant 1606: 1603: 1596: 1590: 1589: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1562: 1553: 1547: 1543: 1540: 1535: 1533: 1532:Philippa Foot 1529: 1528:virtue ethics 1525: 1518:Virtue ethics 1517: 1515: 1513: 1509: 1508:probabilistic 1505: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1437:Peter Railton 1434: 1433:Agent-focused 1429: 1428:Agent-neutral 1425: 1423: 1414: 1412: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1397:. Individual 1396: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1363: 1361: 1359: 1358: 1352: 1344: 1339: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1325: 1323: 1318: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1297: 1289: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1272: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1259: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1243: 1241: 1235: 1227: 1225: 1222: 1214: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1187: 1179: 1177: 1175: 1174: 1169: 1168:Auguste Comte 1162: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1136: 1128: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1117: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1089: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1069: 1068: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1006: 1002: 1001: 992: 988: 982: 980: 972: 964: 962: 960: 955: 950: 948: 944: 939: 935: 932: 927: 926:Robert Nozick 922: 920: 916: 912: 908: 902: 894: 892: 890: 889: 884: 880: 875: 874: 868: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 849: 843: 834: 827: 820: 816: 812: 807: 799: 794: 792: 790: 789: 784: 783:deontological 779: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 756: 752: 748: 747: 742: 741: 736: 735:virtue ethics 728: 726: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 699: 697: 695: 691: 687: 686:Robert Nozick 683: 679: 678:T. M. Scanlon 675: 671: 666: 664: 660: 656: 652: 651:virtue ethics 648: 644: 639: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 616: 615: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 562: 557: 555: 550: 548: 543: 542: 540: 539: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 493: 489: 483: 482: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 459:Phenomenology 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 416: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 393: 389: 383: 382: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 332: 331: 330: 327: 323: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 287: 286: 283: 279: 276: 275: 274: 271: 267: 264: 263: 262: 259: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 226: 225: 222: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 204: 203: 200: 199: 198: 197: 194: 190: 183: 180: 178: 175: 174: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 151: 150:Ancient Greek 148: 146: 143: 142: 141: 138: 137: 136: 135: 132: 128: 122: 116: 115: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 78: 67: 66: 64: 63: 59: 55: 54: 51: 47: 43: 42: 37: 32: 19: 7010: 6966:Human rights 6909:After Virtue 6635:Schopenhauer 6409:Moral agency 6282:Common sense 6178:Universalism 6146:Expressivism 6126:Intuitionism 6097:Subjectivism 6042:Terraforming 6017:Professional 5881: 5816: 5802: 5473: 5464:Postcritique 5454:Kyoto School 5413:Posthumanism 5393:Hermeneutics 5248: / 5225: 5189:Contemporary 5165:Newtonianism 5128:Cartesianism 5087:Reductionism 4923:Conservatism 4918:Collectivism 4856: 4584:Sarvāstivadā 4562:Anekantavada 4487:Neoplatonism 4455:Epicureanism 4388:Pythagoreans 4327:Confucianism 4293:Contemporary 4283:Early modern 4187:Anti-realism 4141:Universalism 4098:Subjectivism 3949: 3894:Epistemology 3724: 3705: 3686: 3657: 3606: 3578: 3566:. 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Retrieved 2105: 2096: 2086:, retrieved 2064: 2024: 2020: 1985: 1966: 1961: 1940: 1906: 1900: 1790:Peter Singer 1736:Shelly Kagan 1688:Julia Driver 1636: 1629: 1618: 1607: 1600: 1586: 1577: 1573: 1571: 1561:ultimate end 1559: 1557: 1554:Ultimate end 1536: 1521: 1479: 1469:Peter Singer 1466: 1454: 1445: 1440: 1432: 1427: 1426: 1418: 1409: 1399:moral agents 1392: 1367: 1355: 1348: 1333: 1329: 1326: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1300: 1279: 1276: 1260: 1250: 1246: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1218: 1209:Peter Singer 1202: 1197: 1193: 1191: 1183: 1171: 1164: 1148: 1138: 1108: 1090: 1082:reproduction 1065: 1023: 1012: 1004: 998: 997: 990: 975: 959:Derek Parfit 957: 952: 942: 940: 936: 923: 904: 886: 883:Peter Singer 871: 869: 857:minimization 853:maximization 846: 840:In summary, 839: 832: 824: 786: 780: 754: 744: 738: 732: 705: 703: 690:Derek Parfit 682:human rights 667: 646: 640: 636:general good 612: 604: 589:consequences 585:teleological 576: 570: 488:Philosophers 396:Epistemology 217:South Africa 172:Contemporary 121:Philosophies 6784:(c. 322 BC) 6650:Kierkegaard 6469:Stewardship 6246:Rousseauian 6163:Rationalism 6075:Cognitivism 6022:Programming 5997:Meat eating 5970:Engineering 5459:Objectivism 5398:Neo-Marxism 5360:Continental 5270:Meta-ethics 5250:Coherentism 5155:Hegelianism 5092:Rationalism 5052:Natural law 5032:Materialism 4958:Historicism 4928:Determinism 4819:Navya-Nyāya 4594:Sautrāntika 4589:Pudgalavada 4525:Vaisheshika 4378:Presocratic 4278:Renaissance 4217:Physicalism 4202:Materialism 4108:Normativity 4093:Objectivism 4078:Emergentism 4068:Behaviorism 4017:Metaphysics 3983:Determinism 3922:Rationalism 3301:. Blackwell 2966:: 216–240. 2930:(3): 1–18. 2756:E. N. Zalta 2637:10722/45241 2468:E. N. Zalta 1798:(1920–2012) 1792:(born 1946) 1786:(1838–1900) 1780:(born 1950) 1774:(born 1945) 1762:(1873–1958) 1760:G. E. Moore 1756:(1806–1873) 1750:(1773–1836) 1744:(1469–1527) 1738:(born 1963) 1732:(1694–1746) 1726:(born 1957) 1724:Brad Hooker 1720:(1920–2000) 1714:(1919–2002) 1708:(1756–1836) 1702:(born 1945) 1696:(1912–2006) 1684:(1857–1952) 1678:(1910–1997) 1672:(1748–1832) 1666:(born 1944) 1660:(born 1937) 1658:R. M. Adams 1585:Max Weber, 1330:possibilism 1263:Karl Popper 1050:basic needs 947:Brad Hooker 931:Amartya Sen 919:rule egoism 772:Machiavelli 632:preferences 620:moral goods 601:eudaimonism 411:Metaphysics 326:By religion 182:Continental 162:Renaissance 36:Demosthenes 7046:Categories 6680:Bonhoeffer 6389:Immorality 6332:Eudaimonia 6292:Conscience 6287:Compassion 6173:Skepticism 6168:Relativism 6085:Naturalism 6065:Absolutism 6037:Technology 5887:Deontology 5758:Amerindian 5665:Australian 5604:Vietnamese 5584:Indonesian 5133:Kantianism 5082:Positivism 5072:Pragmatism 5047:Naturalism 5027:Liberalism 5005:Subjective 4943:Empiricism 4847:Avicennism 4792:Bhedabheda 4676:East Asian 4599:Madhyamaka 4579:Abhidharma 4445:Pyrrhonism 4212:Nominalism 4207:Naturalism 4136:Skepticism 4126:Relativism 4116:Absolutism 4045:Naturalism 3955:Deontology 3927:Skepticism 3912:Naturalism 3902:Empiricism 3866:Aesthetics 3770:Philosophy 3641:2008009151 3568:2023-09-18 3543:Philosophy 3378:12. p. 67. 3305:2019-12-27 3274:King, Iain 2750:. 2019. " 2493:. p. 2088:2024-03-21 2021:Philosophy 1878:References 1748:James Mill 1712:R. M. Hare 1682:John Dewey 1649:See also: 1597:Criticisms 1514:approach. 1502:least put 1490:eudaimonic 1422:motivation 1382:omniscient 1374:John Rawls 1370:altruistic 1334:maximalism 1232:See also: 1205:R. M. Hare 1120:"legalist" 1101:hedonistic 1075:sinologist 1056:, war and 907:deontology 899:See also: 788:inherently 647:deontology 419:Aesthetics 108:Categories 50:Philosophy 7062:Teleology 6941:Casuistry 6853:Either/Or 6760:Korsgaard 6755:Azurmendi 6720:MacIntyre 6660:Nietzsche 6590:Augustine 6585:Confucius 6565:Aristotle 6541:Ethicists 6499:Intrinsic 6464:Suffering 6374:Happiness 6347:Free will 6327:Etiquette 6272:Authority 6216:Epicurean 6211:Confucian 6206:Christian 6141:Emotivism 5965:Discourse 5902:Pragmatic 5874:Normative 5637:Pakistani 5599:Taiwanese 5546:Ethiopian 5519:By region 5505:By region 5320:Scientism 5315:Systemics 5175:Spinozism 5102:Socialism 5037:Modernism 5000:Objective 4908:Anarchism 4842:Averroism 4731:Christian 4683:Neotaoism 4654:Zurvanism 4644:Mithraism 4639:Mazdakism 4410:Cyrenaics 4337:Logicians 3970:Free will 3932:Solipsism 3879:Formalism 3649:750831024 3563:146267944 3444:. 2000. " 3285:Continuum 3148:(1990) . 3132:214650271 2884:Routledge 2838:0090-502X 2358:. p. 101. 2197:1393-614X 2191:19:1–24. 2043:197875941 1871:Welfarism 1576:or to an 1566:Max Weber 1549:Max Weber 1539:Iain King 1351:normative 1296:Actualism 1240:promoting 848:Happiness 722:W.D. Ross 718:J.S. 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