318:
341:
122:
637:). These highly dense surface states would be able to absorb a large quantity of charge donated from the metal, effectively shielding the semiconductor from the details of the metal. As a result, the semiconductor's bands would necessarily align to a location relative to the surface states which are in turn pinned to the Fermi level (due to their high density), all without influence from the metal.
192:
The
Schottky barrier height is defined differently for n-type and p-type semiconductors (being measured from the conduction band edge and valence band edge, respectively). The alignment of the semiconductor's bands near the junction is typically independent of the semiconductor's doping level, so the
620:
In fact, empirically, it is found that neither of the above extremes is quite correct. The choice of metal does have some effect, and there appears to be a weak correlation between the metal work function and the barrier height, however the influence of the work function is only a fraction of that
841:
in 1939. Although it gives the correct direction of rectification, it has also been proven that the Mott theory and its
Schottky-Davydov extension gives the wrong current limiting mechanism and wrong current-voltage formulae in silicon metal/semiconductor diode rectifiers. The correct theory was
912:
The
Schottky diode, also known as the Schottky-barrier diode, was theorized for years, but was first practically realized as a result of the work of Atalla and Kahng during 1960–1961. They published their results in 1962 and called their device the "hot electron" triode structure with
628:
that the Fermi level pinning phenomenon would naturally arise if there were chargeable states in the semiconductor right at the interface, with energies inside the semiconductor's gap. These would either be induced during the direct chemical bonding of the metal and semiconductor
909:. One of those clamp circuits used a single germanium diode to clamp a silicon transistor in a circuit configuration that is the same as the Schottky transistor. The circuit relied on the germanium diode having a lower forward voltage drop than a silicon diode would have.
1335:
897:
type and density in the semiconductor, the droplet spreading depends on the magnitude and sign of the voltage applied to the mercury droplet. This effect has been termed ‘Schottky electrowetting’, effectively linking electrowetting and semiconductor effects.
653:-type germanium, since the valence band edge is strongly pinned to the metal's Fermi level. The solution to this inflexibility requires additional processing steps such as adding an intermediate insulating layer to unpin the bands. (In the case of germanium,
640:
The Fermi level pinning effect is strong in many commercially important semiconductors (Si, Ge, GaAs), and thus can be problematic for the design of semiconductor devices. For example, nearly all metals form a significant
Schottky barrier to
523:
in the semiconductor, it was found experimentally that it would give grossly incorrect predictions for the height of the
Schottky barrier. A phenomenon referred to as "Fermi level pinning" caused some point of the band gap, at which finite
904:
The first silicon oxide gate transistor were invented by Frosch and Derick in 1957 at Bell Labs. In 1956, Richard Baker described some discrete diode clamp circuits to keep transistors from saturating. The circuits are now known as
1983:
503:
283:
601:
358:. They are bent again just before contact (to match work functions). Upon contact however, the band bending changes completely, in a way that depends on the chemistry of the Ag-Si bonding.
901:
Between 1953-1958, Fuller and
Ditzenberger's work on the diffusion of impurities into silicon. In 1956 Miller and Savage studied the diffusion of aluminium in crystal silicon.
1139:
724:
110:
938:, publishing their results in January 1963. Their work was a breakthrough in metal–semiconductor junction and Schottky barrier research, as it overcame most of the
774:
were used (and are still used) to convert alternating current to direct current in electrical power applications. During 1925–1940, diodes consisting of a pointed
1687:
949:
In 1967, Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs, patented a method to replaced the aluminum gate with a polycrystalline layer of silicon
417:
858:
over the metal–semiconductor potential barrier. Thus, the appropriate name for the metal–semiconductor diode should be the Bethe diode, instead of the
1311:
1153:
Nishimura, T.; Kita, K.; Toriumi, A. (2007). "Evidence for strong Fermi-level pinning due to metal-induced gap states at metal/germanium interface".
528:
exists, to be locked (pinned) to the Fermi level. This made the
Schottky barrier height almost completely insensitive to the metal's work function:
913:
semiconductor-metal emitter. It was one of the first metal-base transistors. Atalla continued research on
Schottky diodes with Robert J. Archer at
2029:
1115:
207:
534:
513:
508:
This model is derived based on the thought experiment of bringing together the two materials in vacuum, and is closely related in logic to
1903:
330:Φ matches the silver's. The bands retain their bending upon contact. This model predicts silver to have a very low Schottky barrier to
790:
range. A World War II program to manufacture high-purity silicon as the crystal base for the point-contact rectifier was suggested by
1603:
2056:
1911:
1878:
1817:
1715:
985:
750:. They consisted of pointed tungsten wire (in the shape of a cat's whisker) whose tip or point was pressed against the surface of a
1981:, Kerwin, Robert E.; Klein, Donald L. & Sarace, John C., "Method for making mis structures", issued 1969-10-28
302:
In practice, the
Schottky barrier height is not precisely constant across the interface, and varies over the interfacial surface.
939:
165:
Whether a given metal-semiconductor junction is an ohmic contact or a
Schottky barrier depends on the Schottky barrier height, Φ
1737:
1509:
795:
317:
82:. (In contrast, a rectifying semiconductor–semiconductor junction, the most common semiconductor device today, is known as a
1707:
1358:
833:
assumed by Mott to a linearly decaying electric field. This semiconductor space-charge layer under the metal is known as the
759:
801:
The first theory that predicted the correct direction of rectification of the metal–semiconductor junction was given by
340:
688:
1751:
Atalla, M.; Kahng, D. (November 1962). "A new "Hot electron" triode structure with semiconductor-metal emitter".
924:
810:
743:
682:
817:
through the semiconductor surface space charge layer which has been known since about 1948 as the Mott barrier.
767:
630:
382:
351:
47:
862:, since the Schottky theory does not predict the modern metal–semiconductor diode characteristics correctly.
728:
720:
1090:
894:
67:
1556:
1333:, "Detector for electrical disturbances", published September 30, 1901, issued March 29, 1904
1837:
1330:
719:
many metals on many semiconductors. The use of the metal–semiconductor diode rectifier was proposed by
1998:
1307:
128:
for metal-semiconductor junction at zero bias (equilibrium). Shown is the graphical definition of the
1936:
1760:
1615:
1568:
1521:
1474:
1427:
1373:
S. Arscott and M. Gaudet "Electrowetting at a liquid metal-semiconductor junction" Appl. Phys. Lett.
1326:
1281:
1243:
1201:
1162:
1059:
1024:
998:
874:
59:
685:
applied for a US patent for a metal-semiconductor diode in 1901. This patent was awarded in 1904.
89:
Metal–semiconductor junctions are crucial to the operation of all semiconductor devices. Usually an
943:
935:
851:
802:
771:
696:
106:
31:
850:
Radiation Laboratory Report dated November 23, 1942. In Bethe's theory, the current is limited by
1960:
1803:
1784:
1316: "Method and apparatus for controlling electric current" first filed in Canada on 22.10.1925.
1133:
818:
754:(lead sulfide) crystal. The first large area rectifier appeared around 1926 which consisted of a
392:
509:
1731:
326:: As the materials are brought together, the bands in the silicon bend such that the silicon's
2035:
2025:
1952:
1907:
1895:
1874:
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1813:
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1711:
1701:
1631:
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1537:
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1443:
1354:
1231:
1121:
1111:
981:
918:
870:
814:
670:
654:
525:
408:
404:
185:. For lower Schottky barrier heights, the semiconductor is not depleted and instead forms an
93:
is desired, so that electrical charge can be conducted easily between the active region of a
83:
1944:
1927:
Archer, R. J.; Atalla, M. M. (January 1963). "Metals Contacts on Cleaved Silicon Surfaces".
1768:
1662:
1623:
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1529:
1482:
1435:
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1378:
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1251:
1209:
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1032:
958:
882:
834:
747:
732:
704:
182:
178:
121:
98:
71:
1227:
1015:
Bardeen, J. (1947). "Surface States and Rectification at a Metal Semi-Conductor Contact".
914:
791:
755:
708:
666:
141:
1270:"Crystal Rectifiers for Electric Currents and Electric Oscillations. Part I. Carborundum"
893:
can be observed, where the droplet spreads out with increasing voltage. Depending on the
829:
is spatially constant through the semiconductor surface layer. This changed the constant
1940:
1764:
1619:
1572:
1525:
1478:
1431:
1285:
1247:
1205:
1166:
1063:
1028:
1948:
1650:
890:
886:
859:
830:
674:
355:
102:
75:
1050:
Tung, R. (2001). "Formation of an electric dipole at metal-semiconductor interfaces".
2050:
1703:
To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology
1580:
1461:
Fuller, C. S.; Struthers, J. D.; Ditzenberger, J. A.; Wolfstirn, K. B. (1954-03-15).
866:
634:
400:
327:
186:
90:
79:
55:
1964:
1788:
1462:
678:
625:
520:
498:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\rm {B}}^{(n)}\approx \Phi _{\rm {metal}}-\chi _{\rm {semi}}}
364:
125:
17:
1978:
1415:
1293:
906:
739:
396:
152:
1839:
NASA Technical Paper 2287: Topics in the Optimization of Millimeter-Wave Mixers
1071:
169:, of the junction. For a sufficiently large Schottky barrier height, that is, Φ
1557:"Diffusion, solubility, and electrical behavior of copper in gallium arsenide"
928:
921:
843:
783:
716:
516:. Different semiconductors respect the Schottky–Mott rule to varying degrees.
94:
63:
2039:
1956:
1780:
1635:
1588:
1541:
1494:
1447:
1255:
1125:
665:
The rectification property of metal–semiconductor contacts was discovered by
1809:
1772:
1486:
855:
806:
646:
1439:
1036:
1870:
775:
763:
614:
296:
723:
in 1926 in the first of his three transistor patents as the gate of the
1402:
932:
878:
838:
826:
794:
in 1942 and successfully undertaken by the Experimental Station of the
779:
700:
278:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\rm {B}}^{(n)}+\Phi _{\rm {B}}^{(p)}=E_{\rm {g}}}
1666:
1651:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"
1627:
1533:
1382:
1213:
1174:
596:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\rm {B}}\approx {\frac {1}{2}}E_{\rm {bandgap}}}
519:
Although the Schottky–Mott model correctly predicted the existence of
1900:
Metal-Semiconductor Schottky Barrier Junctions and Their Applications
1105:
847:
751:
692:
201:-type Schottky barrier heights are ideally related to each other by:
1269:
371:-doped silicon. In practice this Schottky barrier is approximately Φ
1189:
712:
120:
51:
770:
onto large metal substrates to form the rectifying diodes. These
1846:
1733:
The Industrial Reorganization Act: The communications industry
822:
787:
140:-type semiconductor as the difference between the interfacial
1836:
Siegel, Peter H.; Kerr, Anthony R.; Hwang, Wei (March 1984).
633:) or be already present in the semiconductor–vacuum surface (
1393:
S. Arscott "Electrowetting and semiconductors" RSC Advances
1188:
Lieten, R. R.; Degroote, S.; Kuijk, M.; Borghs, G. (2008).
399:, predicts the Schottky barrier height based on the vacuum
946:
and made it possible to build practical Schottky diodes.
865:
If a metal-semiconductor junction is formed by placing a
354:: The bands in the silicon already start out bent due to
1866:
Infrared and Millimeter Waves V6: Systems and Components
1234:[On current conduction through metal sulfides],
782:
crystal base, were fabricated in laboratories to detect
821:
and Spenke extended Mott's theory by including a donor
367:
for models of formation of junction between silver and
70:. The rectifying metal–semiconductor junction forms a
1510:"Diffusion of Donor and Acceptor Elements in Silicon"
537:
420:
210:
1463:"Diffusivity and Solubility of Copper in Germanium"
97:and the external circuitry. Occasionally however a
2020:Streetman, Ben G.; Banerjee, Sanjay Kumar (2016).
595:
497:
334:-doped silicon, making an excellent ohmic contact.
277:
1604:"Diffusion of Aluminum in Single Crystal Silicon"
1508:Fuller, C. S.; Ditzenberger, J. A. (1956-05-01).
1416:"Diffusion of Lithium into Germanium and Silicon"
1414:Fuller, C. S.; Ditzenberger, J. A. (1953-07-01).
731:using a metal/semiconductor gate was advanced by
78:, while the non-rectifying junction is called an
173:is significantly higher than the thermal energy
978:Semiconductor Devices: Modelling and Technology
117:The critical parameter: Schottky barrier height
1232:"Ueber die Stromleitung durch Schwefelmetalle"
1091:"Barrier Height Correlations and Systematics"
8:
1678:
1676:
1138:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
980:, Nandita Dasgupta, Amitava Dasgupta.(2004)
805:in 1939. He found the solution for both the
725:metal–semiconductor field effect transistors
111:metal–semiconductor field effect transistors
1555:Fuller, C. S.; Whelan, J. M. (1958-08-01).
742:application occurred around 1900, when the
738:The earliest metal–semiconductor diodes in
1929:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1561:Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids
758:semiconductor thermally grown on a copper
306:Schottky–Mott rule and Fermi level pinning
1858:
1856:
1831:
1829:
1085:
1083:
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1008:
568:
567:
553:
543:
542:
536:
479:
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452:
451:
432:
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419:
391:of Schottky barrier formation, named for
268:
267:
248:
242:
241:
222:
216:
215:
209:
1602:Miller, R. C.; Savage, A. (1956-12-01).
837:. A similar theory was also proposed by
1686:was invoked but never defined (see the
1351:Fundamentals of Solid-State Electronics
970:
1655:Journal of The Electrochemical Society
1190:"Ohmic contact formation on n-type Ge"
1131:
58:material. It is the oldest practical
1904:Springer Science & Business Media
621:predicted by the Schottky-Mott rule.
514:semiconductor-semiconductor junctions
7:
2024:. Boston: Pearson. p. 251-257.
1753:IRE Transactions on Electron Devices
711:showing rectification properties of
403:of the metal relative to the vacuum
1999:"Fiction in the Integrated Circuit"
1896:"Microwave Schottky Barrier Diodes"
1681:
1949:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1963.tb54926.x
927:technology, and fabricated stable
587:
584:
581:
578:
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427:
422:
269:
243:
238:
217:
212:
25:
1649:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957).
1682:Cite error: The named reference
1107:Physics of semiconductor devices
999:"Inhomogeneous Schottky Barrier"
339:
316:
181:near the metal and behaves as a
1738:U.S. Government Printing Office
1104:Sze, S. M. Ng, Kwok K. (2007).
877:did, onto a semiconductor, e.g.
796:E. I du Pont de Nemours Company
62:. M–S junctions can either be
2022:Solid state electronic devices
1805:Silicon-Molecular Beam Epitaxy
1708:Johns Hopkins University Press
439:
433:
255:
249:
229:
223:
54:comes in close contact with a
1:
1236:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
778:metal wire in contact with a
74:, making a device known as a
1581:10.1016/0022-3697(58)90091-X
1294:10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.25.31
1863:Button, Kenneth J. (1982).
1700:Bassett, Ross Knox (2007).
27:Type of electrical junction
2073:
1997:Stein, Eric (2018-01-01).
1608:Journal of Applied Physics
1514:Journal of Applied Physics
1072:10.1103/PhysRevB.64.205310
380:
1110:. John Wiley & Sons.
846:and reported by him in a
683:Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose
375: = 0.8 eV.
2057:Semiconductor structures
1256:10.1002/andp.18752291207
744:cat's whisker rectifiers
649:and an ohmic contact to
631:metal-induced gap states
624:It was noted in 1947 by
411:) of the semiconductor:
383:Metal-induced gap states
352:metal-induced gap states
2003:TWU Master's Thesis
1773:10.1109/T-ED.1962.15048
1487:10.1103/PhysRev.93.1182
1349:Sah, Chih-Tang (1991).
1194:Applied Physics Letters
1155:Applied Physics Letters
729:field-effect transistor
697:point-contact rectifier
295:is the semiconductor's
177:, the semiconductor is
130:Schottky barrier height
1440:10.1103/PhysRev.91.193
1268:Pierce, G. W. (1907).
1037:10.1103/PhysRev.71.717
917:. They developed high
617:in the semiconductor.
597:
499:
279:
162:
1740:. 1973. p. 1475.
1331:Bose, Jagadis Chunder
942:problems inherent in
707:published a paper in
673:metal contacted with
598:
500:
280:
124:
1353:. World Scientific.
944:point-contact diodes
727:. The theory of the
535:
418:
208:
107:Schottky transistors
60:semiconductor device
1941:1963NYASA.101..697A
1802:Kasper, E. (2018).
1765:1962ITED....9..507A
1620:1956JAP....27.1430M
1573:1958JPCS....6..173F
1526:1956JAP....27..544F
1479:1954PhRv...93.1182F
1432:1953PhRv...91..193F
1286:1907PhRvI..25...31P
1248:1875AnP...229..556B
1206:2008ApPhL..92b2106L
1167:2007ApPhL..91l3123N
1064:2001PhRvB..64t5310T
1029:1947PhRv...71..717B
889:electrical setup –
852:thermionic emission
772:selenium rectifiers
443:
348:Fermi level pinning
259:
233:
48:electrical junction
36:metal–semiconductor
32:solid-state physics
18:Fermi level pinning
1894:Anand, Y. (2013).
1403:10.1039/C4RA04187A
819:Walter H. Schottky
593:
495:
421:
393:Walter H. Schottky
389:Schottky–Mott rule
324:Schottky–Mott rule
275:
237:
211:
163:
2031:978-1-292-06055-2
1849:. pp. 12–13.
1667:10.1149/1.2428650
1628:10.1063/1.1722283
1614:(12): 1430–1432.
1534:10.1063/1.1722419
1383:10.1063/1.4818715
1377:, 074104 (2013).
1214:10.1063/1.2831918
1175:10.1063/1.2789701
1117:978-0-471-14323-9
1052:Physical Review B
815:majority carriers
655:germanium nitride
561:
409:ionization energy
405:electron affinity
101:is useful, as in
16:(Redirected from
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1473:(6): 1182–1189.
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1397:, 29223 (2014).
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1002:
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959:Schottky barrier
883:Schottky barrier
835:Schottky barrier
813:currents of the
762:. Subsequently,
733:William Shockley
705:George W. Pierce
681:semiconductors.
602:
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346:Picture showing
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183:Schottky barrier
99:Schottky barrier
72:Schottky barrier
21:
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2019:
2016:
2014:Further reading
2011:
2010:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1906:. p. 220.
1893:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1873:. p. 214.
1862:
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1854:
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1834:
1827:
1820:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1750:
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1710:. p. 328.
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1467:Physical Review
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1420:Physical Review
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1274:Physical Review
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1103:
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1044:
1023:(10): 717–727.
1017:Physical Review
1014:
1013:
1006:
997:
996:
992:
976:
972:
967:
955:
792:Frederick Seitz
756:copper(I) oxide
709:Physical Review
667:Ferdinand Braun
663:
657:has been used)
613:is the size of
612:
563:
538:
533:
532:
510:Anderson's rule
474:
447:
416:
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385:
379:
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142:conduction band
135:
119:
103:Schottky diodes
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2059:
2049:
2048:
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2030:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2008:
1989:
1970:
1935:(3): 697–708.
1919:
1912:
1886:
1879:
1852:
1825:
1818:
1794:
1759:(6): 507–508.
1743:
1723:
1716:
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1672:
1641:
1594:
1567:(2): 173–177.
1547:
1520:(5): 544–553.
1500:
1453:
1406:
1386:
1366:
1359:
1341:
1318:
1299:
1260:
1242:(4): 556–563,
1219:
1180:
1161:(12): 123123.
1145:
1116:
1096:
1077:
1058:(20): 205310.
1042:
1004:
990:
969:
968:
966:
963:
962:
961:
954:
951:
891:electrowetting
887:Schottky diode
860:Schottky diode
831:electric field
675:copper sulfide
669:in 1874 using
662:
659:
635:surface states
610:
604:
603:
589:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
566:
560:
557:
552:
546:
541:
506:
505:
491:
488:
485:
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477:
473:
467:
464:
461:
458:
455:
450:
446:
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438:
435:
429:
424:
372:
363:
362:
356:surface states
345:
338:
337:
322:
315:
314:
313:
312:
311:
307:
304:
292:
286:
285:
271:
266:
262:
257:
254:
251:
245:
240:
236:
231:
228:
225:
219:
214:
189:to the metal.
170:
166:
158:
148:
133:
118:
115:
76:Schottky diode
68:non-rectifying
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2069:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1990:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1920:
1915:
1913:9781468446555
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1887:
1882:
1880:9780323150590
1876:
1872:
1868:
1867:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1841:
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1832:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1819:9781351093514
1815:
1811:
1807:
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1790:
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1774:
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1735:
1734:
1727:
1724:
1719:
1717:9780801886393
1713:
1709:
1705:
1704:
1696:
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1400:
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1283:
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1275:
1271:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1238:(in German),
1237:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1200:(2): 022106.
1199:
1195:
1191:
1184:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
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1146:
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1034:
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986:81-203-2398-X
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915:HP Associates
910:
908:
902:
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896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
863:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
842:developed by
840:
836:
832:
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824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
746:were used in
745:
741:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
695:in 1906 on a
694:
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676:
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564:
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531:
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517:
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511:
475:
471:
444:
436:
414:
413:
412:
410:
406:
402:
401:work function
398:
394:
390:
384:
370:
366:
365:Band diagrams
357:
353:
349:
342:
333:
329:
328:work function
325:
319:
310:
305:
303:
300:
298:
291:
264:
260:
252:
234:
226:
204:
203:
202:
200:
196:
190:
188:
187:ohmic contact
184:
180:
176:
157:
154:
147:
143:
139:
131:
127:
123:
116:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
91:ohmic contact
87:
85:
81:
80:ohmic contact
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
56:semiconductor
53:
49:
46:is a type of
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2021:
2002:
1992:
1973:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1899:
1889:
1865:
1838:
1804:
1797:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1732:
1726:
1702:
1695:
1658:
1654:
1644:
1611:
1607:
1597:
1564:
1560:
1550:
1517:
1513:
1503:
1470:
1466:
1456:
1423:
1419:
1409:
1394:
1389:
1374:
1369:
1350:
1344:
1321:
1302:
1280:(1): 31–60.
1277:
1276:. Series I.
1273:
1263:
1239:
1235:
1222:
1197:
1193:
1183:
1158:
1154:
1148:
1106:
1099:
1055:
1051:
1045:
1020:
1016:
993:
977:
973:
948:
911:
907:Baker clamps
903:
900:
881:, to form a
864:
800:
737:
689:G.W. Pickard
687:
679:iron sulfide
664:
650:
642:
639:
626:John Bardeen
623:
619:
607:
605:
521:band bending
518:
507:
388:
386:
368:
350:effect from
347:
331:
323:
309:
301:
289:
287:
198:
194:
191:
174:
164:
155:
145:
137:
129:
126:Band diagram
88:
84:p–n junction
43:
39:
35:
29:
940:fabrication
803:Nevill Mott
766:films were
740:electronics
703:. In 1907,
691:received a
407:(or vacuum
397:Nevill Mott
153:Fermi level
50:in which a
1979:US3475234A
1661:(9): 547.
1426:(1): 193.
1360:9810206372
1308:US 1745175
965:References
929:evaporated
925:deposition
922:metal film
844:Hans Bethe
784:microwaves
768:evaporated
721:Lilienfeld
717:sputtering
381:See also:
197:-type and
95:transistor
64:rectifying
2040:908999844
1957:1749-6632
1810:CRC Press
1781:0096-2430
1688:help page
1684:Baker1956
1636:0021-8979
1589:0022-3697
1542:0021-8979
1495:0031-899X
1448:0031-899X
1327:US 755840
1228:Braun, F.
1134:cite book
1126:488586029
933:sputtered
856:electrons
807:diffusion
760:substrate
748:receivers
735:in 1939.
647:germanium
551:≈
540:Φ
476:χ
472:−
449:Φ
445:≈
423:Φ
239:Φ
213:Φ
136:, for an
2051:Category
1965:84306885
1871:Elsevier
1789:51637380
1230:(1874),
953:See also
936:contacts
776:tungsten
764:selenium
715:made by
615:band gap
297:band gap
179:depleted
44:junction
1937:Bibcode
1761:Bibcode
1616:Bibcode
1569:Bibcode
1522:Bibcode
1475:Bibcode
1428:Bibcode
1282:Bibcode
1244:Bibcode
1202:Bibcode
1163:Bibcode
1060:Bibcode
1025:Bibcode
879:silicon
871:mercury
867:droplet
839:Davydov
827:density
786:in the
780:silicon
701:silicon
671:mercury
661:History
611:bandgap
2038:
2028:
1985:
1963:
1955:
1910:
1877:
1816:
1787:
1779:
1714:
1634:
1587:
1540:
1493:
1446:
1357:
1337:
1329:,
1313:
1124:
1114:
984:
919:vacuum
895:doping
848:M.I.T.
825:whose
752:galena
713:diodes
699:using
693:patent
645:-type
606:where
288:where
109:, and
2005:: 58.
1961:S2CID
1843:(PDF)
1785:S2CID
885:in a
875:Braun
873:, as
811:drift
144:edge
52:metal
2036:OCLC
2026:ISBN
1953:ISSN
1908:ISBN
1875:ISBN
1847:NASA
1814:ISBN
1777:ISSN
1712:ISBN
1632:ISSN
1585:ISSN
1538:ISSN
1491:ISSN
1444:ISSN
1355:ISBN
1140:link
1122:OCLC
1112:ISBN
982:ISBN
809:and
677:and
512:for
395:and
387:The
151:and
34:, a
1945:doi
1933:101
1769:doi
1663:doi
1659:104
1624:doi
1577:doi
1530:doi
1483:doi
1436:doi
1399:doi
1379:doi
1375:103
1290:doi
1252:doi
1240:153
1210:doi
1171:doi
1068:doi
1033:doi
869:of
854:of
823:ion
788:UHF
526:DOS
132:, Φ
86:.)
66:or
40:M–S
30:In
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2001:.
1959:.
1951:.
1943:.
1931:.
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1869:.
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1967:.
1947::
1939::
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1070::
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1035::
1027::
1001:.
988:.
931:/
651:p
643:n
629:(
608:E
588:p
585:a
582:g
579:d
576:n
573:a
570:b
565:E
559:2
556:1
545:B
490:i
487:m
484:e
481:s
466:l
463:a
460:t
457:e
454:m
440:)
437:n
434:(
428:B
373:B
369:n
332:n
293:g
290:E
270:g
265:E
261:=
256:)
253:p
250:(
244:B
235:+
230:)
227:n
224:(
218:B
199:p
195:n
171:B
167:B
161:.
159:F
156:E
149:C
146:E
138:n
134:B
38:(
20:)
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