88:
1408:
333:
204:
60:, “If the saturated liquid is a multi-component liquid (for example, a mixture of propane, isobutane and normal butane), the flashed vapor is richer in the more volatile components than is the remaining liquid". Although the flashed portion will be primarily components with higher volatilities (lighter HC), heavier HC will also flash into the vapor phase to some extent. Composition of flash gas is highly dependent on temperature and pressure and can therefore be manipulated using these control variables to become a usable resource (natural gas,
1484:
412:
1579:
1615:. These vessels are also known as de-liquidizers or degassers because they either remove liquid from the bulk gas stream or remove gas from the bulk liquid stream during processing. Pressure optimization based on sample compositions taken upstream can provide a solution to inefficient separations and can help to reduce the overall amount of flash gas produced.
286:, as of 2015, has public record of two National Air Toxics Assessments (NATA) which present the effects of air toxic emissions on a national-scale. In addition to identifying and prioritizing air toxins, the assessment determines specific locations that are at risk so that corrective measures may be implemented. Reports also go into detail about potential
17:
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chemical process simulators, e.g. WinSim, Designer II, HYSIM, and VMG. These programs can also have the ability to incorporate data from site-specific samples to give more accurate results. Alternatively, a captured liquid or gas sample can be analyzed in a laboratory setting to determine the composition and dissolved
1569:
Vapor recovery towers (VRT) have been posed as a potential solution for vapor loss via thief hatches. VRTs are a way to reduce the vapor loading on storage tanks by removing some of the flash gas before it gets to the oil tanks. The VRT can improve safety by reducing the potential for issues relating
1536:
VRU’s can create revenue through the resale and use of the captured vapors that would have been vented into the environment and lost. The revenue produced is dependent on the amount of vapor captured and sold into a pipeline. Analysis has been done to show the economic impacts from emission reduction
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portion is separated out. The gas portions can be used to fuel on-site operation, be transported to storage tanks for further separation, can be piped out directly to another facility, or be injected into a compressor; the liquid portions (NGLs) that commonly form are normally sent to the water tank.
1469:
from a reservoir. Soave-Redlich-Kwong and Peng-Robinson are examples of two commonly used EOS in industry for determining critical properties of multicomponent mixtures. These equations can be useful for the prediction and estimation of flash loss when used in conjunction with sampling and reservoir
1419:
processing by using sample analysis software at the flash site, e.g. ProMax
Software, which is able to predict emissions and losses due to flash, i.e. working and standing losses. Other techniques that are used to make calculations of flash losses (without sampling and analysis) are referred to as
415:
Contributions of nitrogen dioxide emissions - the primary source of ozone- to the global average thermal absorption of ozone as observed by the
Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer instrument on NASA's Aura spacecraft in Aug. 2006. High values (red) indicate that emissions in that location contribute
1565:
relief to the vessel. Thief hatches are also used in gauge tanks and in transport vehicles where they must be opened to the atmosphere to take measurements and samples. Flash gas is readily leaked whenever these hatches are opened and therefore they can pose a problem in terms of emissions. There
1548:
that have been dissolved into the liquid phase because the units are designed to recover what is already in the vapor phase. Also, when the gas in put under high pipeline pressure, NGLs are condensed out and are returned to the water tank (in rare instances they are processed and sold as NGL’s).
1270:
VOCs that indicate the presence of a disease or cancer in a patient. Additional researchers have also begun trying to identify ties between the onset of cancer and the levels of VOCs in the environment. A database to gather information on cancer and other aspects of VOCs in human cell lines, the
1436:
and not into their individual components. This model can only calculate the instantaneous flash gas and does not calculate the working or standing flash gas losses. Additional equations have been developed to use in accordance with the VBE equation to determine species-specific losses, such as
1314:. They are said to be formed “when the atmospheric oxidation products of volatile organic compounds undergo gas-particle transfer.” The contribution of VOCs to the levels of SOA in the atmosphere have been modeled using simulation chamber experiments to gain a better understanding of the
79:(VOC) which have been suggested to have harmful long-term environmental impacts. Various efforts by organizations around the world have been made to develop appropriate guidelines for handling flash gas as well as tools for evaluating flash emissions through model based calculations.
36:
products through pipelines and into vessels, such as when the stream from a common separation unit flows into an on-site atmospheric storage tank. Vessels that are used to intentionally “flash” a mixture of gas and saturated liquids are aptly named "flash drums." A type of
194:
to capture and store and/or transport these liquids to market. Profitability under current models is highly dependent on the access to pipeline infrastructure, gas volume produced, and the number of/distance between production facilities (batteries).
1218:
precursors are emitted to the atmosphere from both natural and man-made sources. Globally, natural emissions appear to outweigh anthropogenic emissions. However, it is the high concentration of anthropogenic sources of volatile organics together with
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to humans and the environment by regulatory agencies and scientific bodies worldwide. The complex nature of chemical interactions in flare, flash, and other production vapors have spawned many efforts to describe and control how these
709:
48:
The composition of the gas that is flashed is dependent on many factors, therefore it is suggested that all extractions be analyzed to determine accurate compositional values. As a generality, this definition applies to the nature of
1610:
are used in oil and gas production to separate water, oil, and gas into isolated streams. A separator, in general, is a pressurized vessel that is used to divide a product based on principles of chemical separation such as phase and
2345:
Rahimpour, M.R.; Jokar, S.M.: Journal of
Hazardous Materials, 2012, 204-217, Ezersky, A.; Lips, H.: Characterisation of refinery flare emissions: assumptions, assertions and AP-42, Bay Area Air Quality Management District (BAAQMD),
1424:(GOR) using precise measurement techniques. However, this only provides insight on the sample of flash gas and does not account for real time fluctuations of all on-site sources of flash gas, including working and standing losses.
1069:
1785:
United States. Texas
Commission on Environmental Quality. Calculating Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Flash Emissions from Crude Oil and Condensate Tanks at Oil and Gas Production Sites. Vol. 5942. Print. Air Permit Reference
1753:"U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis." What are natural gas liquids and how are they used? - Today in Energy - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
785:
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The Costa Pinto
Production Plant in Piracicaba, Brazil. Processing of carbon-rich sugarcane provides sugar, ethanol fuel, industrial grade ethanol, and alcohol for beverages, but also produces harmful emissions.
1487:
Pueblo
Chemical Agent-Destruction Pilot Plant Scrubber Tower. The scrubber tower is part of the off-gas treatment system that will be used to filter air emissions from the Pueblo Chemical Agent-Destruction Pilot
1537:
and capture using VRU and other technology. These units also reduce the amount of emissions of VOCs associated with oil and natural gas production, again by preventing them from being vented directly into the
3085:(Sutton, R.P. 1985. Compressibility Factors for High-Molecular-Weight Reservoir Gases. Presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, 22–26 September. SPE-14265-MS.
526:
act lays out guidelines for levels of hazardous materials, including some VOCs, that are acceptable in the water of the United States. VOCs are hazardous to the environment due to their ability to form
3076:
Rachford, H.H. and Rice, J.D.: “Procedure for Use of
Electrical Digital Computers in Calculating Flash Vaporization Hydrocarbon Equilibrium,” Journal of Petroleum Technology, Sec. 1, p. 19, Oct. 1952.)
2086:
1594:, lighter hydrocarbon fractions, (C1-C8) from the heavy, less volatile fraction (C9+) for safety reasons. Vent gas from heater treaters is known as a significant source of flash gas and consequential
211:
Flash gas is the emissions from flash evaporation, breathing emissions, and working emissions. Breathing, or standing emissions, occur naturally as liquid sits in a vessel and undergoes normal
590:. Photochemical reactions are defined as, “a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of energy in the form of light”. These reactions often result in the production of photo-chemical
268:
3174:
Ashour, I., 2011. Applications of
Equations of State in the Oil and Gas Industry. Oman: Department of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering College of Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University
1324:
particle exposure techniques to test for toxicity. There is research currently being done to find the interaction between SOA’s and lung cells to see their potential harmful effects.
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on a tank or vessel used in the oil and gas industry. These hatches are placed in atmospheric or low pressure tanks in order to allow for level or sample measurements and to provide
2592:
Pinto, D. M.; Blande, J. D.; Souza, S. R.; Nerg, A.; Holopainen, J. K. (2010). "Plant
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in Ozone (O3) Polluted Atmospheres: The Ecological Effects".
1826:
Williams, H. F. L.; Havens, D. L.; Banks, K. E.; Wachal, D. J. (October 2008). "Field-based monitoring of sediment runoff from natural gas well sites in Denton County, Texas, USA".
1318:
involved. SOAs are said to be a major causative factor to the mortality rates associated with the exposure to harmful fine particulate air pollution however there is an absence of
67:
The production of flash-gas and its release into the atmosphere, via venting and improper handling during production, is of concern to environmental efforts due to the presence of
3098:(Stewart, W.F., Burkhardt, S.F., and Voo, D. 1959. Prediction of Pseudo-critical Parameters for Mixtures. Presented at the AIChE Meeting, Kansas City, Missouri, USA, 18 May 1959.)
2287:
United States, EPA, Air
Quality. (1994). Control techniques for volatile organic compound emissions from stationary sources. Rockville, MD, Oklahoma: Government Institutes, Inc.
135:, heavier components (C5+), or “other NGL”, lighter components that typically remain in the vapor phase during production. NGL is not to be confused with its subcategory LPG,
186:
in 2015. Despite its value and use, many of the components that make up NGL and LPG become considered “waste gas” during production and are flared on-site or vented into the
1504:
from oilfield stock tanks. A VRU works by compressing the flash gas that is produced in storage tanks and other units to be put into a pipeline. A basic VRU is made up of a
1081:
1360:. Since the mixture is of multiple components, more complex equations like the Rachford-Rice equation are applicable in ideal situations and have frequently been used in
797:
317:. Greenhouse gases are necessary for keeping our atmosphere warm enough to sustain life but also serve as a medium for over-heating to occur, a phenomenon referred to as
900:
3327:
1598:. It is possible to re-route this vent gas to a VRU to capture some of the stream or other processing units in order to reduce emissions and make additional revenue.
166:
Capturing NGL’s has shown an uptick in their economic share of U.S. production levels the past few years, sparking interest for advancement in recovery techniques for
3204:
ICF International (ICF). (2014). Economic Analysis of Methane Emission Reduction Opportunities in the U.S. Onshore Oil and Natural Gas Industries. Fairfax, VA: ICF
1653:
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is agitated, such as during transportation, emptying/filling of tanks, sampling, etc. Contained within all of these emissions are materials that have been deemed
87:
2579:
KIRKELEIT, J., RIISE, T., BRĂ…TVEIT, M., & MOEN, B. E. (2005, December 21). Benzene Exposure on a Crude Oil Production Vessel. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
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504:
468:
283:
249:
1943:
Harrison, Samuel S. (November 1983). "Evaluating System for Ground-Water Contamination Hazards Due to Gas-Well Drilling on the Glaciated Appalachian Plateau".
1906:
Vidic, R. D.; Brantley, S. L.; Vandenbossche, J. M.; Yoxtheimer, D.; Abad, J. D. (May 16, 2013). "Impact of Shale Gas Development on Regional Water Quality".
1186:
The VOC oxygen bond is broken in the presence of nitrogen oxide, forming a VOC-oxygen anion and nitrogen dioxide to further participate in reaction 3. Where
2372:
Code of Federal Regulations, 40: Chapter 1, Subchapter C, Part 51, Subpart F, 51100, and EPA's Terms of Environment Glossary, Abbreviations, and Acronyms.
996:
2908:
Williams, J., & Koppmann, R. (2007). Volatile Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere: An Overview. Volatile Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere, 1-32.
1461:
which describes the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions. EOS are used to make calculations about the predicted phase-behavior of
2342:
Sangsaraki, M.E.; Anajafi, E.: International Conference on Chemical, Food and Environment Engineering (ICCFEE'15), Dubai (UAE), January 11–12, 2015.
722:
42:
3352:
32:, or flashing, is the process of volatile components suddenly vaporizing from their liquid state. This often happens during the transportation of
28:
is a spontaneous vapor that is produced from the heating or depressurization of the extracted oil mixture during different phases of production.
1544:
There have been concerns raised about the efficiency of VRU’s. It has been pointed out that vapor recovery units (VRU’s) cannot recover lighter
1432:
Another acceptable technique in flash estimation is the Vasques-Beggs Equation (VBE) which calculates the amount of flash gas in terms of total
1399:
show even further deviation from ideal behavior and need additional computational adjustments, such as Sutton’s modification to Steward et al.
1299:
2655:
2026:
1983:
379:
which are produced during petroleum operations are also a concern to the environment. On average, 43.6% of waste gas from a typical plant is
2580:
1855:
Colborn, Theo; Kwiatkowski, Carol; Schultz, Kim; Bachran, Mary (September 2011). "Natural Gas Operations from a Public Health Perspective".
2272:
Team, E. W. (2005, October 01). ESRL Global Monitoring Division - Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
1702:
1407:
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and flash gas both contain GHGs and therefore contribute to their release into the atmosphere, estimates of their emission levels during
2381:
United States, EPA, Air Quality. (n.d.). Recommended Policy on Control of Volatile Organic Compounds (131st ed., Vol. 42, 35313-35316).
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interact with other materials in the atmosphere to create air pollution. The study of these interactions is encompassed by the field of
576:
500:
41:. A venting apparatus is used in these vessels to prevent damage due to increasing pressure, extreme cases of this are referred to as
3251:"UPDATE: Reports of Worker Fatalities during Manual Tank Gauging and Sampling in the Oil and Gas Extraction Industry - - Blogs - CDC"
3311:
3162:
2406:
1654:"1 Step for the Oil and Gas Industry / Capture Flash Gases from Oil Production / Stop Intentional Methane and Hydrocarbon Pollution"
1392:(EOS) can be applied to account for these discrepancies and can be used to provide a better estimation of flash gas content. Higher
3228:
3148:
Cheremisinoff, Nicholas P. Pollution control handbook for oil and gas engineering. Beverly, MA: Schrivener Publishing, 2016. Print.
3025:
Pariselli, F.; Sacco, M.; Ponti, J.; Rembges, D. (2009). "Effects of toluene and benzene air mixtures on human lung cells (A549)".
276:
207:
Deepwater Horizon oil spill as seen by NASA's Terra Satellites on May 24 via a Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer.
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The Effects of Induced Hydraulic Fracturing on the Environment: Commercial Demands vs. Water, Wildlife, and Human Ecosystems
1729:
International Energy Agency. Natural Gas Liquids Supply Outlook, 2008-2015. Paris: International Energy Agency, 2010. Print
332:
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patient to determine the VOC content of the lungs before and after surgery. This study suggests that there may be certain
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and heavier products. Components of NGL’s have varying states during production, meaning that some will exist solely as a
1338:
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production are considered to be non-ideal or real, and may not be in equilibrium. Additional relationships, such as the
3183:
Sadus, R. J. (1994) Calculating Critical Transitions of Fluid Mixtures: Theory Vs. Experiment, AIChE J., 40, 1376-1403.
2318:"Opportunities for CO2 equivalent emissions reductions via flare and vent mitigation: A case study for Alberta, Canada"
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mandated the EPA to regulate appropriate levels of HAP emissions from source categories such as industrial and mobile.
2475:"Organic compounds in office environments - sensory irritation, odor, measurements and the role of reactive chemistry"
1350:
182:. The apparent value of these materials has put the level of products developed from NGLs at an all-time high in the
38:
2925:
Kalberer, M.; et al. (2004). "Identification of polymers as major components of atmospheric organic aerosols".
614:
compounds in the atmosphere. These oxidants participate in further atmospheric reactions which are said to “produce
1607:
1283:
2524:"Indoor residential chemical emissions as risk factors for respiratory and allergic effects in children: A review"
203:
1624:
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572:
511:
420:
76:
2382:
2241:
Blasing, T. Recent Greenhouse Gas Concentrations. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) Datasets.
384:
2717:
EPA-450/2-78-041 and "Measurement of Volatile Organic Compounds – Supplement 1" (EPA-450/3-82-0m19, July 1982.
1311:
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Fleming, G. R., & Longworth, J. (2016, April 15). Photochemical reaction. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
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Carslaw, K. S.; Boucher, O.; Spracklen, D. V.; Mann, G. W.; Rae, J. G.; Woodward, S.; Kulmala, M. (2010).
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https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry/Kinetics/Case_Studies%3A_Kinetics/Smog
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271:(NESHAP). Oil and natural gas production is known as a stationary source and is therefore required by the
267:
There are currently 187 different chemical compounds that are classified as HAP which are declared in the
132:
2976:
Volkamer, R.; Jimenez, J. L.; Martini, F. S.; Dzepina, K.; Zhang, Q.; Salcedo, D.; Molina, M. J. (2006).
2581:
https://academic.oup.com/annweh/article/50/2/123/204990/Benzene-Exposure-on-a-Crude-Oil-Production-Vessel
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If they are sent to oil storage they will re-vaporize and go through the VRU, creating an endless cycle.
3193:
2454:
Demerjian, K. L.; Kerr, J. A.; Calvert, J. G. (1974). "The mechanisms of photochemical smog formation".
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1771:
Johnson, M.R.; Coderre, A.R.: Canada, International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control. 2012, 8, 121–131.
233:
2405:(Technical Overview of Volatile Organic Compounds. (2017, February 22). Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
1175:{\displaystyle {\ce {{{\mathit {R}}O2}+{\mathit {N}}O->{{\mathit {R}}O^{-}{.}}+{\mathit {N}}O_{2}}}}
2978:"Secondary organic aerosol formation from anthropogenic air pollution: Rapid and higher than expected"
2570:"What is Smog?", Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, CCME.caArchived September 28, 2011.
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2199:
1952:
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A species of VOC bound to hydrogen reacts with hydroxide to form a VOC free-radical and water vapor.
883:{\displaystyle {\ce {{{\mathit {O}}_{3}}+{\mathit {N}}O->{{\mathit {N}}O_{2}}+{\mathit {O}}_{2}}}}
1483:
979:{\displaystyle {\ce {{{\mathit {R}}H}+{\mathit {O}}H{.}->{{\mathit {R}}{.}}+{\mathit {H}}_{2}O}}}
3264:
2727:
Filipiak, W.; Mochalski, P.; Filipiak, A.; Ager, C.; Cumeras, R.; Davis, C.; Troppmair, J. (2016).
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have also been reports of fatalities caused by manual tank gauging and sampling via thief hatches.
1538:
1211:
587:
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279:(NSPS), and Control Techniques Guidelines to reduce the amount of emissions the industry produces.
216:
187:
61:
3250:
2819:""The formation, properties and impact of secondary organic aerosol " current and emerging issues"
2162:
3347:
3321:
3007:
2958:
2891:
2625:
2407:
https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/technical-overview-volatile-organic-compounds#overview
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One study estimated a 40% increase in the atmospheric concentration of the GHG carbon dioxide (CO
365:
1492:
Vapor Recovery Units (VRU’s) have commonly been used to capture vented gas and other waste gas (
1415:
More realistic modelling techniques encompass variable conditions that can occur on-site during
3067:
Skogestad, Sigurd. Chemical and energy process engineering. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2009. Print.
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that is not currently well understood, but is thought to make up a significant portion of the
1207:
310:
29:
2669:"Current Challenges in Volatile Organic Compounds Analysis as Potential Biomarkers of Cancer"
2296:
Understanding Global Warming Potentials. (2017, February 14). Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
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to separate the oil from produced water, stabilize the crude oil or condensate by separating
3299:
3131:
3042:
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2909:
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2014:
1960:
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more strongly to the trapping of heat in the Earth's atmosphere relative to other locations.
175:
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704:{\displaystyle {\ce {{{\mathit {N}}O2}+{\mathit {h}}v->{{\mathit {N}}O}+{\mathit {O}}}}}
2440:
2048:
1814:
1215:
591:
514:” in which they separated VOCs based on three criteria: photochemical reactivity, role in
476:
3293:
3236:
2419:
1342:
3214:
3122:
Vazquez, M.; Beggs, H.D. (1980). "Correlations for Fluid Physical Property Prediction".
3038:
2993:
2938:
2871:
2834:
2793:
2605:
2539:
2490:
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2260:
Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2009. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
2203:
1956:
1868:
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Nitrogen dioxide reacts with UV radiation to form nitrogen oxide and an oxygen radical.
64:(NGL’s), alternative fuels, etc.) if proper infrastructure and sponsorship is in place.
2858:
Jimenez, J. L.; et al. (2009). "Evolution of organic aerosols in the atmosphere".
2753:
2728:
2695:
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2137:
What are Hazardous Air Pollutants? (2017, February 09). Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
1964:
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321:. GHGs are produced both directly and indirectly during many production phases of the
3341:
2548:
2523:
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2161:
GHGRP and the Oil and Gas Industry. (2017, March 12). Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
2150:
1421:
1369:
1064:{\displaystyle {\ce {{{\mathit {R}}{.}}+{\mathit {O}}_{2}->{{\mathit {R}}O_{2}}}}}
484:
460:
392:
257:
183:
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2895:
2629:
1935:
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in the human body. One such example is a group that collected breath samples from a
2962:
2393:
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). (2017, January 12). Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
1365:
1354:
1346:
1287:
515:
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state under atmospheric (ambient) conditions. In general chemistry terms, VOCs are
313:, when energy trapped within the gas causes a resulting warming of the atmospheric
248:(HAP) they contain. HAPs, also known as toxic air contaminants, are defined by the
96:
1411:
Example of a plot flow diagram (PFD) detailing a crude oil distillation operation.
364:
production vary due to largely unmeasured release of flash gas and other forms of
244:
The environmental impact of emissions can be quantified in terms of the amount of
2211:
2173:
Emissions from oil and gas production operations. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
1973:
1876:
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effects in infants and children”. There are concerns that these compounds can be
2778:"A review of natural aerosol interactions and feedbacks within the Earth system"
2729:"A Compendium of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Released By Human Cell Lines"
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432:
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140:
131:. Therefore, it is necessary that components of NGL are distinguished as either
124:
108:
104:
57:
53:
2149:
National Air Toxics Assessment. (2016, May 18). Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
780:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\mathit {O}}+{\mathit {O}}_{2}->{{\mathit {O}}_{3}}}}}
3278:
3046:
2913:
2613:
1839:
1809:. California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources Board. May 6, 2016.
1307:
1303:
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99:, primarily having 2-8 carbon atoms, that are present in the flash gas during
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2126:
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The free-radical VOC reacts with oxygen to form a VOC bound with oxygen gas.
2946:
2879:
2843:
2818:
2383:
https://www3.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/aqmguide/collection/Doc_0002_VOCFR0708771.pdf
2246:
2007:
Understanding Multiple Environmental Stresses: Report of a Workshop (2007).
1919:
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Peterson, J.; Cooper, H.; Baukal, C.: Hydrocarbon processing, 2007, 111-115.
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2557:
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2186:
Gavenas, Ekaterina; Rosendahl, Knut Einar; Skjerpen, Terje (October 2015).
2113:
Hazardous Air Pollutants. (2017, March 17). Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
2008:
1927:
1328:
Methods for Calculating and Estimating Flash Gas Composition and Flash Loss
3157:
Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press.
2685:
1586:
Heater treaters are often used in industry for the following: To break up
1557:
Thief hatch, also known as a gauge hatch, is a term given to a close-able
1306:
of radiant energy, leading to shifts in weather via changes in cloud drop
3002:
2977:
2220:
1587:
1558:
1525:
1513:
1505:
1320:
1203:
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The radical oxygen combines with O2 gas in the atmosphere to form ozone.
622:, induce discomfort and are suspected to have toxic effects on humans.”
611:
128:
2298:
https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understanding-global-warming-potentials
411:
356:
emissions made up more than 80% of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.
2262:
https://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdf
1612:
1295:
556:
555:
causing in both humans and animals. In particular, exposure to the VOC
544:
488:
380:
179:
171:
156:
144:
3086:
894:
Ozone reacts with nitrogen oxide to form nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
443:. As a result, these chemicals exhibit an ease of transition from the
3303:
3194:
http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/v/vapor_recovery_unit.aspx
2175:
http://petrowiki.org/Emissions_from_oil_and_gas_production_operations
1562:
1529:
1259:
1242:
activities (transport mechanisms) then carry the formed oxidant into
552:
472:
444:
287:
253:
224:
220:
160:
152:
116:
112:
3135:
2473:
Wolkoff, P.; Wilkins, C. K.; Clausen, P. A.; Nielsen, G. D. (2006).
1337:
Calculation of flash gas content is often based on the principle of
375:) is due directly to human activities since 1750. GHGs other than CO
309:. This process of energy capture and release is what allows for the
16:
2018:
563:
production could pose potentially serious health risks to workers.
535:
through photochemical reactions. As well as contributing to indoor
1577:
1521:
1482:
1406:
1235:
603:
448:
410:
331:
290:
and health problems associated with the level of reported toxins.
202:
120:
86:
15:
123:, and some will be a mixture of the two depending on the current
1368:. It is important to note that these equations are based on the
615:
532:
2163:
https://www.epa.gov/ghgreporting/ghgrp-and-oil-and-gas-industry
1821:. Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry. May 2004.
1153:
1127:
1113:
1089:
1041:
1021:
1004:
958:
941:
922:
908:
865:
840:
826:
806:
761:
740:
729:
695:
681:
667:
643:
627:
Mechanistic description for the formation of Photochemical Smog
1377:
1220:
580:
428:
322:
100:
3295:
Optimize Separator Operating Pressures to Reduce Flash Losses
510:
In 1977, the EPA released “Recommended Policy on Control of
107:
production. In other words, NGL is the liquids removed from
2394:
2114:
1516:
in the tank reaches the set-point, the switch kicks on the
2139:
https://www.epa.gov/haps/what-are-hazardous-air-pollutants
3292:
Edward, Boyer, Brian; Steve, O'Connell (1 January 2005).
2654:
L. (2016, July 21). Smog. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
2644:
https://www.britannica.com/science/photochemical-reaction
2125:
Rules and Implementation. Retrieved April 11, 2017, from
1198:
is a volatile organic compound (VOC). Additionally, some
1168:
1104:
1056:
1032:
969:
876:
855:
817:
772:
751:
658:
269:
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
3192:"Vapor recovery unit." Schlumberger. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
391:
because of its ability to absorb more radiation energy.
3108:
170:. Uses of NGLs vary, from other combustible fuels like
2420:
http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/files/8238_info_photosmog.pdf
618:, damage plant and animal life, and materials such as
91:
Pumpjacks operating in North Dakota with a flare unit.
2283:
2281:
2274:
https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/global.html
2188:"CO2-emissions from Norwegian oil and gas extraction"
1298:
effect the atmospheric radiative balance through the
1214:
which participate in atmospheric reactions. VOCs or
1084:
999:
903:
800:
725:
638:
1815:"Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylenes (BTEX)"
1741:
GPSA Engineering Data Book. S.l.: GSAP, 2004. Print.
301:are classified by their ability to absorb and emit
2316:Johnson, Matthew R.; Coderre, Adam R. (May 2012).
2151:https://www.epa.gov/national-air-toxics-assessment
1174:
1063:
978:
882:
779:
703:
95:Natural gas liquids (NGL) are the fraction of the
3265:"heater treater - Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary"
1500:production, it was originally created to capture
1294:aerosol or submicron atmospheric particle mass.
3229:"Oilfield Parts & Equipment - Thief Hatches"
507:as having negligible photochemical reactivity.”
2322:International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control
1428:Estimations Based on Volatile Organic Compounds
341:It is estimated that 90% of GHG emissions from
1553:Thief Hatch Alternatives/Vapor Recovery Towers
8:
3326:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1602:Oil and Gas Separators/Pressure Optimization
1570:to high vapor evolution from the oil tanks.
571:Much of the negative impact associated with
575:stems from their ability to participate in
190:as flash gas. This can be due to a lack of
2256:
2254:
2127:https://www3.epa.gov/ttn/atw/eparules.html
522:depletion, and direct health effects. The
275:to follow guidelines put forth by NESHAP,
256:and other serious health impacts”. In the
143:mixtures in which the main components are
3001:
2842:
2801:
2752:
2694:
2684:
2547:
2498:
2333:
2219:
1703:"flash gas, wasted oil and gas emissions"
1254:Studies have been done to try to find if
1167:
1162:
1152:
1151:
1142:
1136:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1112:
1111:
1103:
1098:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1055:
1050:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1031:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1009:
1003:
1002:
1001:
1000:
998:
968:
963:
957:
956:
946:
940:
939:
938:
930:
921:
920:
907:
906:
905:
904:
902:
875:
870:
864:
863:
854:
849:
839:
838:
837:
825:
824:
816:
811:
805:
804:
802:
801:
799:
771:
766:
760:
759:
757:
750:
745:
739:
738:
728:
727:
726:
724:
694:
693:
680:
679:
678:
666:
665:
657:
652:
642:
641:
640:
639:
637:
219:. Working emissions are created when the
1582:Vertical and horizontal heater treaters.
399:and is known to also be released during
383:. Methane has 28-36 times the amount of
83:Natural Gas Liquids/Liquid Petroleum Gas
43:boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion
3215:"whats wrong with vapor recovery units"
3109:"Bryan Research & Engineering, Inc"
1781:
1779:
1777:
1749:
1747:
1737:
1735:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1437:HAP-calc for determining the amount of
3319:
3027:Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology
2436:
2425:
2096:"Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere"
2087:"Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere"
2044:
2034:
1725:
1723:
20:Oil and Natural Gas Refinery in Turkey
1234:which increase the risk of the urban
395:has a GWP of 265-298 times that of CO
7:
2351:"Liquefied Petroleum Gas Combustion"
1857:Human and Ecological Risk Assessment
499:, which participates is atmospheric
3087:https://dx.doi.org/10.2118/14265-MS
2817:Hallquist, M.; et al. (2009).
2067:. Annenberg Learner. Archived from
1275:, has been started by researchers.
471:defines VOC’s as, “Any compound of
427:, some of which occur naturally in
2360:. Environmental Protection Agency.
2089:. Libre Texts. September 16, 2014.
1965:10.1111/j.1745-6584.1983.tb01940.x
14:
2782:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
2745:10.2174/0929867323666160510122913
2667:Schmidt, K.; Podmore, I. (2015).
2010:Atmosphere-Ecosystem Interactions
1803:"Health Effects of Air Pollution"
1341:(VLE) and combines theories like
503:, except those designated by the
2549:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00478.x
2500:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2005.00393.x
1279:Secondary Organic Aerosols (SOA)
463:below 200 ËšC, and low to medium
407:Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
403:and combustion of fossil fuels.
277:New Source Performance Standards
3124:Journal of Petroleum Technology
539:, VOCs are also known to have “
3353:Pollution control technologies
1286:(SOA) are a type of hazardous
1121:
1035:
935:
834:
754:
675:
240:Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAP)
24:In an oil and gas production,
1:
349:. As of 2009, energy-related
2982:Geophysical Research Letters
2212:10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.025
2013:. National Academies Press.
1877:10.1080/10807039.2011.605662
103:production or as liquids in
3233:www.oilfieldpartsxpress.com
2733:Current Medicinal Chemistry
2594:Journal of Chemical Ecology
2335:10.1016/j.ijggc.2012.02.004
1652:Taylor Miles (2016-12-29).
1353:, similar to those used in
1258:can be directly related to
260:, legislation known as the
3369:
3279:"Oil and gas separators -"
2094:Gases And The Atmosphere.
1284:Secondary Organic Aerosols
1210:in the atmosphere to form
512:Volatile Organic Compounds
421:Volatile organic compounds
178:, to the manufacturing of
77:Volatile Organic Compounds
56:(HC) that make up oil and
3047:10.1016/j.etp.2008.10.004
2914:10.1002/9780470988657.ch1
2614:10.1007/s10886-009-9732-3
2456:Adv Environ. Sci. Technol
1972:McBroom, Matthew (2013).
1840:10.1007/s00254-007-1096-9
1625:Flash-gas (refrigeration)
1512:, and a switch. Once the
1374:thermodynamic equilibrium
579:with primary pollutants (
252:as “those known to cause
2803:10.5194/acp-10-1701-2010
2395:https://www.epa.gov/sdwa
2115:https://www.epa.gov/haps
1376:, while hydrocarbons in
1339:vapor-liquid equilibrium
1238:problem. Wind and other
385:global warming potential
246:hazardous air pollutants
69:Hazardous Air Pollutants
2947:10.1126/science.1092185
2880:10.1126/science.1180353
2844:10.5194/acp-9-5155-2009
2522:Mendell, M. J. (2007).
2058:"Atmospheric Pollution"
1920:10.1126/science.1235009
1439:Hazardous Air Pollution
577:photochemical reactions
567:Photochemical Reactions
501:photochemical reactions
137:liquefied petroleum gas
2056:The Habitable Planet.
1707:One Step In Foundation
1658:One Step In Foundation
1583:
1489:
1474:Reduction of Flare Gas
1455:thermodynamic equation
1412:
1386:Van Der Waals equation
1333:Flash Gas Calculations
1176:
1065:
980:
884:
781:
705:
417:
338:
294:Greenhouse Gases (GHG)
208:
199:Environmental Concerns
133:natural-gas condensate
92:
39:vapor-liquid separator
21:
2673:Journal of Biomarkers
2247:10.3334/cdiac/atg.032
1828:Environmental Geology
1581:
1486:
1410:
1177:
1066:
981:
885:
782:
706:
414:
335:
234:atmospheric chemistry
206:
90:
19:
3003:10.1029/2006gl026899
1479:Vapor Recovery Units
1082:
997:
901:
798:
723:
636:
168:petroleum extraction
3039:2009EToxP..61..381P
2994:2006GeoRL..3317811V
2939:2004Sci...303.1659K
2933:(5664): 1659–1662.
2872:2009Sci...326.1525J
2866:(5959): 1525–1529.
2835:2009ACP.....9.5155H
2794:2010ACP....10.1701C
2686:10.1155/2015/981458
2606:2010JCEco..36...22P
2540:2007InAir..17..259M
2491:2006InAir..16....7W
2204:2015Ene....90.1956G
1957:1983GrWat..21..689H
1869:2011HERA...17.1039C
1678:"Flash Evaporation"
1403:Chemical Simulation
1170:
1106:
1058:
1034:
971:
878:
857:
819:
774:
753:
660:
524:Safe Drinking Water
62:natural gas liquids
1584:
1490:
1445:Equations of State
1413:
1390:equations of state
1172:
1158:
1094:
1061:
1046:
1018:
976:
955:
880:
862:
845:
803:
777:
758:
737:
701:
648:
529:ground level ozone
497:ammonium carbonate
418:
366:fugitive emissions
339:
209:
93:
22:
3217:. 23 August 2016.
2829:(14): 5155–5236.
2823:Atmos. Chem. Phys
2739:(20): 2112–2131.
2435:Missing or empty
2028:978-0-309-10331-2
1985:978-1-4822-3095-6
1914:(6134): 1235009.
1451:equation of state
1200:organic compounds
1161:
1155:
1135:
1129:
1120:
1115:
1097:
1091:
1049:
1043:
1023:
1006:
974:
960:
943:
929:
924:
915:
910:
867:
848:
842:
833:
828:
808:
763:
742:
731:
697:
688:
683:
674:
669:
651:
645:
457:molecular weights
453:organic molecules
435:, that have high
425:organic chemicals
311:greenhouse effect
30:Flash evaporation
3360:
3332:
3331:
3325:
3317:
3304:10.2118/94373-MS
3289:
3283:
3282:
3281:. 11 March 2021.
3275:
3269:
3268:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3253:. 10 April 2015.
3247:
3241:
3240:
3235:. Archived from
3225:
3219:
3218:
3211:
3205:
3202:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3175:
3172:
3166:
3155:
3149:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3105:
3099:
3096:
3090:
3083:
3077:
3074:
3068:
3065:
3059:
3058:
3022:
3016:
3015:
3005:
2973:
2967:
2966:
2922:
2916:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2855:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2788:(4): 1701–1737.
2773:
2767:
2766:
2756:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2698:
2688:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2589:
2583:
2577:
2571:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2551:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2502:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2438:
2433:
2431:
2423:
2416:
2410:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2370:
2364:
2361:
2355:
2339:
2337:
2307:
2301:
2294:
2288:
2285:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2258:
2249:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2223:
2183:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2090:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2073:
2062:
2052:
2046:
2042:
2040:
2032:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1968:
1939:
1897:
1891:
1888:
1863:(5): 1039–1056.
1851:
1834:(7): 1463–1471.
1822:
1810:
1793:
1787:
1783:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1754:
1751:
1742:
1739:
1730:
1727:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1699:
1693:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1664:
1649:
1502:hydrogen sulfide
1441:(HAP) produced.
1394:molecular weight
1312:radiation budget
1181:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1159:
1157:
1156:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1140:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1033:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1014:
1013:
1008:
1007:
985:
983:
982:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
962:
961:
951:
950:
945:
944:
934:
927:
926:
925:
916:
913:
912:
911:
889:
887:
886:
881:
879:
877:
874:
869:
868:
858:
856:
853:
846:
844:
843:
831:
830:
829:
820:
818:
815:
810:
809:
786:
784:
783:
778:
776:
775:
773:
770:
765:
764:
752:
749:
744:
743:
733:
732:
710:
708:
707:
702:
700:
699:
698:
689:
686:
685:
684:
672:
671:
670:
661:
659:
656:
649:
647:
646:
596:nitrogen dioxide
441:room temperature
299:Greenhouse gases
176:natural gasoline
139:, described as “
73:Greenhouse Gases
3368:
3367:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3338:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3318:
3314:
3291:
3290:
3286:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3249:
3248:
3244:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3203:
3199:
3191:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3156:
3152:
3147:
3143:
3136:10.2118/6719-PA
3121:
3120:
3116:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3097:
3093:
3084:
3080:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3024:
3023:
3019:
2975:
2974:
2970:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2907:
2903:
2857:
2856:
2852:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2775:
2774:
2770:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2653:
2649:
2641:
2637:
2591:
2590:
2586:
2578:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2472:
2471:
2467:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2434:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2413:
2404:
2400:
2392:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2353:
2349:
2315:
2308:
2304:
2295:
2291:
2286:
2279:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2252:
2240:
2236:
2226:
2224:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2172:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2148:
2144:
2136:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2112:
2108:
2098:
2093:
2085:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2060:
2055:
2043:
2033:
2029:
2006:
1999:
1995:
1986:
1971:
1942:
1905:
1898:
1894:
1854:
1825:
1813:
1801:
1794:
1790:
1784:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1745:
1740:
1733:
1728:
1721:
1712:
1710:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1686:
1684:
1682:ChemEngineering
1676:
1675:
1671:
1662:
1660:
1651:
1650:
1643:
1638:
1621:
1604:
1576:
1574:Heater Treaters
1555:
1481:
1476:
1459:state variables
1447:
1430:
1405:
1372:and liquids at
1362:chemical plants
1358:unit operations
1351:energy balances
1345:with component
1335:
1330:
1281:
1252:
1250:VOC Diagnostics
1226:emissions from
1224:
1132:
1080:
1079:
995:
994:
899:
898:
796:
795:
721:
720:
634:
633:
625:
609:
601:
584:
569:
521:
477:carbon monoxide
409:
398:
390:
378:
374:
354:
296:
242:
201:
85:
12:
11:
5:
3366:
3364:
3356:
3355:
3350:
3340:
3339:
3334:
3333:
3312:
3284:
3270:
3256:
3242:
3239:on 2017-04-17.
3220:
3206:
3197:
3185:
3176:
3167:
3150:
3141:
3114:
3100:
3091:
3078:
3069:
3060:
3033:(4): 381–386.
3017:
2968:
2917:
2901:
2850:
2809:
2768:
2719:
2710:
2659:
2647:
2635:
2584:
2572:
2563:
2514:
2465:
2446:
2411:
2398:
2386:
2374:
2365:
2363:
2362:
2347:
2343:
2340:
2302:
2289:
2277:
2265:
2250:
2234:
2178:
2166:
2154:
2142:
2130:
2118:
2106:
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1630:Vapor recovery
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467:in water. The
461:boiling points
437:vapor pressure
408:
405:
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376:
372:
352:
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319:global warming
295:
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192:infrastructure
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2074:on 2018-07-13
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2012:
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1994:
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1981:
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1977:
1976:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
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1941:
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470:
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386:
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273:Clean Air Act
270:
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262:Clean Air Act
259:
258:United States
255:
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2389:
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2325:
2321:
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2268:
2237:
2225:. Retrieved
2195:
2191:
2181:
2169:
2157:
2145:
2133:
2121:
2109:
2076:. Retrieved
2069:the original
2064:
2009:
2000:
1996:
1974:
1948:
1945:Ground Water
1944:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1895:
1860:
1856:
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1827:
1818:
1806:
1795:
1791:
1767:
1758:
1711:. Retrieved
1709:. 2016-09-07
1706:
1697:
1685:. Retrieved
1681:
1672:
1661:. Retrieved
1657:
1606:Three phase
1605:
1585:
1568:
1556:
1546:hydrocarbons
1543:
1535:
1491:
1463:hydrocarbons
1448:
1431:
1414:
1397:hydrocarbons
1355:distillation
1343:Raoult’s Law
1336:
1319:
1292:tropospheric
1282:
1253:
1195:
1192:UV radiation
1187:
1185:
1074:
989:
893:
790:
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632:
626:
624:
570:
509:
475:, excluding
439:at ordinary
419:
370:
343:fossil fuels
340:
297:
281:
266:
243:
230:hydrocarbons
210:
165:
97:hydrocarbons
94:
66:
54:hydrocarbons
50:
47:
25:
23:
2485:(1): 7–19.
2328:: 121–131.
2227:14 November
2065:learner.org
1453:(EOS) is a
1288:particulate
1264:lung cancer
1244:rural areas
1232:urban areas
541:respiratory
487:, metallic
423:(VOCs) are
387:(GWP) as CO
315:temperature
213:evaporation
151:and normal
141:hydrocarbon
125:temperature
109:natural gas
105:natural gas
75:(GHG), and
58:natural gas
3342:Categories
2988:(17): 17.
2528:Indoor Air
2479:Indoor Air
2078:2018-10-15
1713:2017-03-28
1663:2017-03-28
1636:References
1608:separators
1539:atmosphere
1528:where the
1518:compressor
1510:compressor
1467:extraction
1388:and other
1366:refineries
1308:nucleation
1304:scattering
1300:absorption
1273:volatilome
1228:combustion
594:, such as
588:atmosphere
537:pollutants
493:carbonates
465:solubility
347:combustion
329:industry.
307:atmosphere
305:energy in
217:atmosphere
188:atmosphere
3348:Petroleum
3322:cite book
2047:ignored (
2037:cite book
1588:emulsions
1498:petroleum
1496:) during
1457:relating
1417:petroleum
1316:chemistry
1268:biomarker
1208:photolyze
1204:aldehydes
1202:(notably
1144:⋅
1138:−
1122:⟶
1036:⟶
1011:⋅
948:⋅
936:⟶
932:⋅
835:⟶
755:⟶
676:⟶
586:) in the
561:crude oil
455:with low
362:petroleum
303:radiation
225:hazardous
215:into the
161:butylenes
157:propylene
45:(BLEVE).
34:petroleum
26:flash-gas
3055:19046626
3012:35016603
2955:15016998
2896:24417049
2888:20007897
2763:27160536
2705:26317039
2679:: 1–16.
2630:33040905
2622:20084432
2558:17661923
2509:16420493
2462:: 1–262.
2428:cite web
1936:32414422
1928:23687049
1885:53996198
1848:20743021
1687:24 March
1619:See also
1592:volatile
1559:aperture
1526:scrubber
1514:pressure
1506:scrubber
1321:in vitro
1296:Aerosols
1212:radicals
592:oxidants
545:allergic
489:carbides
180:plastics
129:pressure
111:such as
51:flashing
3035:Bibcode
2990:Bibcode
2963:5856836
2935:Bibcode
2927:Science
2868:Bibcode
2860:Science
2831:Bibcode
2790:Bibcode
2754:5086670
2696:4437398
2602:Bibcode
2536:Bibcode
2487:Bibcode
2358:epa.gov
2310:Sources
2200:Bibcode
2001:Sources
1953:Bibcode
1908:Science
1900:Sources
1865:Bibcode
1819:cdc.gov
1796:Sources
1613:density
1465:before
1260:cancers
1216:oxidant
559:during
557:benzene
447:to the
401:flaring
381:methane
288:cancers
172:autogas
145:propane
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2192:Energy
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1807:ca.gov
1786:Guide.
1563:vacuum
1530:liquid
1488:Plant.
1470:data.
1271:human
1206:) can
620:rubber
612:peroxy
553:cancer
549:immune
473:carbon
445:liquid
254:cancer
221:liquid
153:butane
117:liquid
113:ethane
3008:S2CID
2959:S2CID
2892:S2CID
2626:S2CID
2354:(PDF)
2346:2003.
2099:(PDF)
2072:(PDF)
2061:(PDF)
1932:S2CID
1881:S2CID
1844:S2CID
1524:to a
1522:vapor
1236:ozone
604:ozone
547:, or
449:vapor
358:Flare
121:vapor
3328:link
3308:ISBN
3159:ISBN
3051:PMID
2951:PMID
2884:PMID
2759:PMID
2701:PMID
2677:2015
2618:PMID
2554:PMID
2505:PMID
2441:help
2229:2022
2049:help
2023:ISBN
1980:ISBN
1924:PMID
1689:2017
1596:VOCs
1380:and
1364:and
1347:mass
1302:and
1256:VOCs
1194:and
616:haze
573:VOCs
533:smog
495:and
431:and
325:and
282:The
174:and
159:and
127:and
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2798:doi
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2330:doi
2243:doi
2216:hdl
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2015:doi
1961:doi
1916:doi
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1836:doi
1449:An
1434:VOC
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1378:oil
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598:(NO
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491:or
469:EPA
433:gas
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323:oil
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250:EPA
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1128:R
1119:O
1114:N
1109:+
1100:2
1096:O
1090:R
1052:2
1048:O
1042:R
1028:2
1022:O
1016:+
1005:R
973:O
965:2
959:H
953:+
942:R
928:H
923:O
918:+
914:H
909:R
872:2
866:O
860:+
851:2
847:O
841:N
832:O
827:N
822:+
813:3
807:O
768:3
762:O
747:2
741:O
735:+
730:O
696:O
691:+
687:O
682:N
673:v
668:h
663:+
654:2
650:O
644:N
608:3
600:2
583:x
520:3
518:O
397:2
389:2
377:2
373:2
353:2
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