1745:
1173:
20:
370:
825:
477:
520:
502:
Anecdotal reports of certain beach placers forming in modern times suggest that the greatest enrichment tended to occur in storm events energetic enough to remove most of the beach's sediment load—a process favoring the lighter minerals. The resultant 'clinker' sands left behind were mined during low
538:
rising from the ocean, may also cause a beach system to become stranded above the high-water mark and lock in the heavy mineral sands. Similarly, a beach system that is drowned by the subsidence of a coastline may be preserved, often for millions of years, until it either is covered by sedimentation
286:
The grade of a typical heavy mineral sand ore deposit is usually low. Within the 21st century, the lowest cut-off grades of heavy minerals, as a total heavy mineral (THM) concentrate from the bulk sand, in most ore deposits of this type is around 1% heavy minerals, although several are higher grade.
348:
Generally, as zircon is the most valuable component and a critical ore component, high-zircon sands are the most valuable. Thereafter, rutile, leucoxene and then ilmenite in terms of value given to the ore. As a generality, typically the valuable components of the THM concentrate rarely exceed 30%.
360:
The Tormin mine, on the
Western Cape of South Africa's coastline, provides a unique ocean beach feature, which exposes the resource to wave and tidal conditions that result in a natural jigging effect. Large proportions of the quartz and light heavies waste material are removed by the ocean tidal
463:
The accumulation of a heavy mineral deposit requires a source of sediment containing heavy minerals onto a beach system in a volume which exceeds the rate of removal from the trap site. For this reason not all beaches which are supplied by sands containing heavy minerals will form economic
654:
operations that have gained public attention and galvanised environmental activism responses to mining proposals include the Tuart-Ludlow mineral sands mine, Western
Australia, and the culmination of conservationist efforts to preserve
663:, Queensland, Australia. These latter campaigns successfully lobbied government and saw Fraser Island and Rainbow Beach protected by the High Court of Australia; however, the Tuart-Ludlow campaign failed to prevent mining works in the
487:
The heavy minerals within the source sediments attain an economic concentration by accumulation within low-energy environments in streams and most usually on beaches. In beach placer deposits the lowest energy zone on the beach is the
605:, where the strip mining is followed by rehabilitation of the mined areas including intensive re-vegetation with ecologically similar species, re-contouring of the land to its original shape, including dunes, and management of
352:
Being ancient stranded dune systems, the tonnage of most deposits is in excess of several tens of millions of tonnes to several hundred million tonnes. For example; the medium-sized Coburn mineral sands deposit,
499:
The size and position of a heavy mineral deposit is a function of the wave energy reaching the beach, the mean grainsize of the beach sediments, and the current height of the ocean.
558:
that feed the placer deposits are rich trap sites where the winnowing action of the waves is most efficient, because heavy minerals too heavy to be moved will deposit at an
582:, in search of diamonds. Such deposits have been sought around the world, with sporadic reports of high-value stones but no instances of economic quantities of sediment.
842:
492:, where turbulent surf washes up on the beach face and loses energy. In this zone heavier grains accumulate and become stranded because they are denser than the
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systems often are exploited for heavy mineral sands because they are from the ocean and because they are often remnants of previous
578:
and isolating stretches of coastline. The beaches are so isolated that they are sometimes processed in their entirety, down to the
875:
797:
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grains they accompany. It is for this reason that beach placer deposits are often referred to as "strand-line deposits".
400:
The source rocks which provide the heavy mineral sands determine the composition of the economic minerals. The source of
671:
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The mining of beach sands and of fossilized beach placers is often controversial because the operation requires the
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tide following major storm events, suggesting that most beach placer deposits are formed during such cycles.
93:
of the mineral grains. It is equally likely that some concentrations of heavy minerals (aside from the usual
1710:
835:
711:
513:
397:, which is caught up in longshore drift and washed up onto beaches where the lighter minerals are winnowed.
670:
Similar mineral sand mining operations were carried out for 35 years in and adjacent to
National Parks at
464:
concentrations of the minerals. This factor can be qualitatively or quantitatively measured through the
1779:
1730:
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Slimes, typically minerals as above and heavy clay minerals, too fine to be economically extracted.
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55:
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of large areas. Often this land is in ecologically sensitive surroundings and contains fragile
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action, resulting in run of mine (ROM) grades as high as 86% heavy mineral concentrate (HMC).
354:
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452:
90:
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82:
19:
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deposits is carried out in such an environmentally responsible manner, although some
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is host to economic diamantiferous beach sands, which are exploited by building
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Specific trap sites for heavy mineral sand placer deposits are in beaches on the
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The mining process is ideally modelled on the extraction operations underway in
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side of headlands, where low-energy zones trap sediments carried along by the
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Of this total heavy mineral concentrate (THM), the components are typically
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Examples of environmentally sensitive and politically sensitive mineral
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357:, is 230 million tonnes at 1.1% heavy minerals, and is 13 km long.
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The source of heavy mineral sands is in a hardrock source within the
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18:
341:, which usually account for the remaining bulk of the THM content
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762:"Ludlow Titanium Minerals Mine, 34 Kilometres South of Bunbury"
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451:. Precious metals are sourced from ore deposits hosted within
35:
393:. Rocks are occasionally eroded directly by wave action shed
647:, is carried out in an environmentally responsible manner.
424:. The source of ilmenite, garnet, sapphire and diamond is
523:
Geelwal Karoo mineral sand deposit, on the west coast of
101:, but most are of a low grade and are relatively small.
633:
385:
into the ocean, where the sediments are caught up in
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849:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
562:in preference to drifting farther down the beach.
798:"WA approves controversial mine at Ludlow Forest"
609:resources. Modern mining practices tend to favor
23:Heavy minerals (dark) in a quartz beach sand (
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8:
381:areas of a river which carries its load of
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373:Magnetic hand separator for heavy minerals
297:, from 1% of THM to upwards of 50% of THM,
909:Learn how and when to remove this message
89:environments by concentration due to the
38:deposit which is an important source of
703:
440:. Garnet is also sourced commonly from
732:
730:
632:mines do practice dune rehabilitation
108:
70:, and occasionally precious metals or
7:
847:adding citations to reliable sources
117:according to U.S. Geological Survey
1726:Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)
858:"Heavy mineral sands ore deposits"
14:
617:operations, due to the advent of
16:Ore deposits of rare earth metals
1743:
1171:
823:
619:electrostatic mineral separation
303:, generally of 10% to 60% of THM
1706:Magmatic nickel-copper-iron-PGE
1696:Kambalda-type komatiitic nickel
834:needs additional citations for
624:In practice, not all mining of
1716:Sedimentary exhalative (SedEx)
667:in coastal Western Australia.
598:built up on poor sandy soils.
105:Grade and tonnage distribution
1:
1691:Iron oxide copper gold (IOCG)
676:Stradbroke Island, Queensland
635:. The mining of the coast of
113:in thousands of tons for 2006
111:Estimated ilmenite production
672:Hawks Nest, New South Wales
534:activity, which results in
1801:
1681:Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc
771:. May 2003. Archived from
58:, the industrial minerals
1739:
1167:
539:or rises from the ocean.
712:"U.S. Geological Survey"
1221:, mineral mixtures and
742:Mineral Commodities Ltd
514:intraglacial highstands
315:, from 1% to 10% of THM
309:, from 5% to 25% of THM
85:formed most usually in
586:Environmental concerns
528:
484:
374:
97:placers) exist within
28:
1731:Orogenic gold deposit
1676:Banded iron formation
522:
479:
372:
22:
843:improve this article
1750:Minerals portal
1686:Heavy mineral sands
1178:Minerals portal
626:sub-Saharan African
121:
56:rare-earth elements
32:Heavy mineral sands
674:, and continue on
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29:
1775:Titanium minerals
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1148:carbonate mineral
1085:Silicate minerals
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952:Titanium minerals
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554:developed at the
453:metamorphic rocks
442:metamorphic rocks
355:Western Australia
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1770:Economic geology
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1701:Lateritic nickel
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639:, in particular
556:mouths of rivers
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91:specific gravity
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1711:Porphyry copper
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1186:
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778:on 7 March 2016
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548:longshore drift
474:
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432:rocks, such as
391:longshore drift
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269:Other countries
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83:placer deposits
34:are a class of
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1158:borate mineral
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1118:Nenadkevichite
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1026:Freudenbergite
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1006:Aeschynite-(Y)
1002:
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960:Oxide minerals
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387:littoral drift
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77:Heavy mineral
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1669:Deposit types
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1128:Zircophyllite
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899:December 2010
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860: –
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854:Find sources:
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832:This article
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665:Tuart forests
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661:Fraser Island
658:
657:Rainbow Beach
653:
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637:South America
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630:South African
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570:The coast of
566:Diamond sands
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1780:Ore deposits
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1685:
1421:Chalcopyrite
1223:ore deposits
1219:Ore minerals
1169:
905:
896:
886:
879:
872:
865:
853:
841:Please help
836:verification
833:
806:. Retrieved
804:. 7 Aug 2004
801:
792:
780:. Retrieved
773:the original
768:
756:
745:. Retrieved
741:
718:. Retrieved
706:
669:
649:
623:
613:rather than
600:
592:strip mining
589:
569:
541:
530:
525:South Africa
505:
501:
498:
486:
483:concentrates
462:
412:, sometimes
399:
376:
359:
351:
347:
321:, typically
289:
285:
262:
250:
238:
144:South Africa
119:
110:
76:
31:
30:
1505:Pentlandite
1481:Molybdenite
1248:Cassiterite
1108:Lorenzenite
1098:Grossmanite
1093:Aenigmatite
1066:Zirconolite
1061:Zimbabweite
1031:Haggertyite
1011:Armalcolite
688:Ore genesis
652:sand mining
621:processes.
607:groundwater
446:amphibolite
420:is usually
416:, and some
277:Total world
128:Production
1764:Categories
1649:Wolframite
1625:Sperrylite
1534:Carbonates
1517:Sphalerite
1486:molybdenum
1433:Chalcocite
1336:Pyrolusite
1154:Warwickite
1103:Keilhauite
1051:Perovskite
1046:Latrappite
1041:Keilhauite
985:Geikielite
869:newspapers
747:2016-08-08
738:"Projects"
720:2006-03-07
699:References
693:Black sand
611:dry mining
596:ecosystems
536:coastlines
507:Fossilised
490:swash zone
481:Black sand
444:, such as
434:kimberlite
426:ultramafic
246:Madagascar
234:Mozambique
99:streambeds
1637:Scheelite
1618:beryllium
1606:aluminium
1566:Malachite
1559:magnesium
1554:Magnesite
1547:magnesium
1457:Cobaltite
1397:Argentite
1385:Acanthite
1360:Uraninite
1348:Tantalite
1341:manganese
1324:Magnetite
1288:Columbite
1144:Sabinaite
1071:Zirkelite
1056:Polycrase
603:Australia
576:sea walls
552:sand bars
466:ZTR index
459:Transport
379:erosional
327:magnetite
313:Leucoxene
134:Australia
72:gemstones
40:zirconium
27:, India).
1654:tungsten
1642:tungsten
1630:platinum
1542:Dolomite
1445:Cinnabar
1377:Sulfides
1353:tantalum
1317:titanium
1312:Ilmenite
1300:Hematite
1281:tantalum
1265:chromium
1260:Chromite
1123:Titanite
1113:Melanite
1036:Ilmenite
1021:Euxenite
1016:Betafite
980:Brookite
682:See also
615:dredging
550:. Also,
532:Tectonic
418:ilmenite
414:tungsten
406:monazite
395:detritus
383:sediment
335:chromite
301:Ilmenite
125:Country
64:sapphire
52:tungsten
44:titanium
1721:Uranium
1601:Bauxite
1450:mercury
1409:Bornite
1365:uranium
1293:niobium
1277:niobium
975:Anatase
883:scholar
645:Ecuador
580:bedrock
572:Namibia
560:isthmus
544:leeward
449:schists
422:granite
365:Sources
339:kyanite
258:Senegal
224:Vietnam
194:Ukraine
60:diamond
48:thorium
25:Chennai
1594:barium
1589:Baryte
1571:copper
1510:nickel
1493:Pyrite
1469:Galena
1462:cobalt
1438:copper
1426:copper
1414:copper
1402:silver
1390:silver
1272:Coltan
1240:Oxides
990:Rutile
968:Simple
885:
878:
871:
864:
856:
808:15 May
782:15 May
769:epa.wa
494:quartz
438:basalt
410:rutile
402:zircon
331:garnet
323:quartz
319:Gangue
307:Rutile
295:Zircon
280:4,800
214:Brazil
174:Norway
154:Canada
138:1,140
68:garnet
1613:Beryl
1582:Other
1137:Other
999:Mixed
890:JSTOR
876:books
776:(PDF)
765:(PDF)
715:(PDF)
641:Chile
430:mafic
263:(150)
251:(700)
239:(750)
204:India
164:China
87:beach
79:sands
1785:Sand
1522:zinc
1498:iron
1474:lead
1329:iron
1305:iron
1279:and
1231:Ores
862:news
810:2016
784:2016
659:and
643:and
510:dune
472:Trap
428:and
337:and
272:120
228:100
218:130
208:200
198:220
188:300
178:380
168:400
158:809
148:952
95:gold
81:are
1253:tin
845:by
802:abc
436:or
389:or
36:ore
1766::
800:.
767:.
740:.
729:^
678:.
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527:.
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