148:
example, in a word-completion implicit memory task, if a subject reads a list containing the word "dog", the subject provides this word more readily when asked for three-letter words beginning in "d". The levels-of-processing effect is only found for explicit memory tests. One study found that word completion tasks were unaffected by levels of semantic encodings achieved using three words with various levels of meaning in common. Another found that typical level-of-processing effects are reversed in word completion tasks; subjects recalled pictures pairs more completely if they were shown a word representing a picture rather than asked to rate a picture for pleasantness (semantic encoding). Typical level-of-processing theory would predict that picture encodings would create deeper processing than lexical encoding.
62:) results in a more durable memory trace. There are three levels of processing in this model. Structural processing, or visual, is when we remember only the physical quality of the word (e.g. how the word is spelled and how letters look). Phonemic processing includes remembering the word by the way it sounds (e.g. the word tall rhymes with fall). Lastly, we have semantic processing in which we encode the meaning of the word with another word that is similar or has similar meaning. Once the word is perceived, the brain allows for a deeper processing.
226:
representations. In this study, subjects were presented with an object in both visual and tactile form (a subject is shown a sphere but cannot touch it, and later is given a similar sphere to only hold and not view). Subjects had more trouble identifying size difference in visual fields than using tactile feedback. A suggestion for the lower level of size processing in visual fields is that it results from the high variance in viewed object size due to perspective and distance.
238:
have a different recall value on explicit memory tests than subjects who memorize smells using self-chosen methods. The difference in recall value, however, depends on the subject, and the subject's ability to form images from odors. Attributing verbal attributes to odors has similar effects. Semantic processing of odors (e.g. attributing the "mud" odor to "smell like a puddle") has found to have the most positive effects on recall.
214:. When test subjects are presented with auditory versus visual word cues, they only perform worse on directed recall of a spoken word versus a seen word, and perform about equally on implicit free-association tests. Within auditory stimuli, semantic analysis produces the highest levels of recall ability for stimuli. Experiments suggest that levels-of-processing on the auditory level is directly correlated with neural activation.
81:?"). The second category of questions was about the phonemic qualities of the word ("Does the word begin with the sound 'bee'?"). The third category of questions was presented so that the reader was forced to think about the word within a certain context. ("Can you meet one in the street "?) The result of this study showed that the words which contained deep processing (the latter) were remembered better.
130:
presented with images. In writing tasks, words are recalled most effectively with semantic cues (asking for words with a particular meaning) if they are encoded semantically (self-generated by the subject as being related to a particular meaning). Words are recalled most effectively with data-driven cues (word completion) if they are read, rather than generated by a subject.
275:, which was activated in an experiment where subjects analyzed the relevance of data to themselves. Specificity of processing is explained on a neurological basis by studies that show brain activity in the same location when a visual memory is encoded and retrieved, and lexical memory in a different location. Visual memory areas were mostly located within the bilateral
2451:
139:
specifically related to an event in a person's life will have widespread activation in that person's semantic network. For example, the recall value of a personality trait adjective is higher when subjects are asked whether the trait adjective applies to them than when asked whether trait adjective has a meaning similar to another trait.
2439:
225:
memory representations are similar in nature to visual representations, although there is not enough data to reliably compare the strength of the two kinds of stimuli. One study suggests that there is a difference in mental processing level due to innate differences between visual and tactile stimuli
116:
theories, this is because such a stimulus will have many connections to other encoded memories, which are activated based on closeness in semantic network structure. This activation increases cognitive analysis, increasing the strength of the memory representation. The familiarity modifier has been
129:
Specificity of processing describes the increased recall value of a stimulus when presented in the method with which it was inputted. For example, auditory stimuli (spoken words and sounds) have the highest recall value when spoken, and visual stimuli have the highest recall value when a subject is
237:
memory is weaker than visual memory, achieving a successful identification rate of only 70-80% of visual memory. Levels-of-processing effects have been found within odor memory if subjects are asked to "visualize" smells and associate them with a particular picture. Subjects who perform this task
321:
Memory encoding strength derived from higher levels-of-processing appears to be conserved despite other losses in memory function with age. Several studies show that, in older individuals, the ability to process semantically in contrast with non-semantically is improved by this disparity. Neural
147:
Implicit memory tests, in contrast with explicit memory tests, measure the recall value of a particular stimulus based on later performance on stimulus-related tasks. During these tasks, the subject does not explicitly recall the stimulus, but the previous stimulus still affects performance. For
347:
Modern studies show an increased effect of levels-of-processing in
Alzheimer patients. Specifically, there is a significantly higher recall value for semantically encoded stimuli over physically encoded stimuli. In one such experiment, subjects maintained a higher recall value in words chosen by
168:
Different sensory modes, by their nature, involve different depths of processing, generally producing higher recall value in certain senses than others. However, there is significant room for the modifiers mentioned earlier to affect levels-of-processing to be activated within each sensory mode.
138:
Levels of processing have been an integral part of learning about memory. The self-reference effect describes the greater recall capacity for a particular stimulus if it is related semantically to the subject. This can be thought of as a corollary of the familiarity modifier, because stimuli
364:
processing created higher recall value in word list-recall tests. Other studies have explicitly found non-semantically processed stimuli to be more accurately processed by autistic patients than in non-autistic patients. No clear conclusions have been drawn as to the cause of this oddity.
77:) participants were given a list of 60 words. Each word was presented along with three questions. The participant had to answer one of them. Those three questions were in one of three categories. One category of questions was about how the word was presented visually ("Is the word shown in
262:
only when identifying whether the word represented a living or nonliving object, and not when identifying whether or not the word contained an "a". Similarly, an auditory analysis task showed increased activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex when subjects performed increasingly
159:
We especially remember information if we relate it to ourselves. Damage to the hippocampus produces an inability to form or retrieve new long-term memories, but the ability to maintain and reproduce a small subset of information over the short term is typically preserved.
69:
which represents memory strength as being continuously variable, the assumption being that rehearsal always improves long-term memory. They argued that rehearsal that consists simply of repeating previous analyses (maintenance rehearsal) doesn't enhance long-term memory.
180:
creates the strongest recall value of all senses, and also allows the widest spectrum of levels-of-processing modifiers. It is also one of the most widely studied. Within visual studies, pictures have been shown to have a greater recall value than words – the
185:. However, semantic associations have the reverse effect in picture memories appear to be reversed to those in other memories. When logical details are stressed, rather than physical details, an image's recall value becomes lower. When comparing
49:
as a function of the depth of mental processing. More analysis produce more elaborate and stronger memory than lower levels of processing. Depth of processing falls on a shallow to deep continuum. Shallow processing (e.g., processing based on
338:
words with threatening meanings over positive and neutral words. In one study, both implicit (free recall) and explicit (memory of emotional aspects) memorization of word lists were enhanced by threatening meanings in such patients.
193:
cues, the highest levels of recall were found with the meanings of the words, followed by their sounds and finally the written and shape-based cues were found to generate the least ability to stimulate recall.
151:"Memory over the short term and the long term has been thought to differ in many ways in terms of capacity, the underlying neural substrates, and the types of processes that support performance."
356:
In autistic patients, levels-of-processing effects are reversed in that semantically presented stimuli have a lower recall value than physically presented stimuli. In one study,
271:
and the cortex lining the junction of the inferior frontal and inferior precentral sulcus. The self-reference effect also has neural correlates with a region of the medial
1120:
258:
with more brain activity and activity in different parts of the brain than lower levels. For example, in a lexical analysis task, subjects showed activity in the
381:
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671.
2039:
1622:
326:
activity when words and images are presented to older subjects than with younger subjects, but roughly equal activity when assessing semantic connections.
1903:
1360:
Scott, L. C.; G. K. Wright; G. S. Rai; A. N. Exton-Smith; J. M. Gardiner (1991). "Further evidence of preserved memory function in
Alzheimer's disease".
769:
Roediger, HL; Stadler ML; Weldon MS; Riegler GL (1992). "Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: word fragment and word stem completion".
459:
251:
2113:
1498:
100:, and the explicit nature of a stimulus modify the levels-of-processing effect by manipulating mental processing depth factors.
93:
1986:
390:
Eysenck, M. (2006). Learning and Long-term memory. In
Fundamentals of cognition (Second ed.). Hove, England: Psychology Press
66:
1229:
Kelley, WM; Macrae CN; Wyland CL; Caglar S; Inati S; Heatherton TF (2002). "Finding the self? An event-related fMRI study".
1177:"Segregating semantic and syntactic aspects of processing in the human brain: an fMRI investigation of different word types"
806:"A processing approach to the working memory/long-term memory distinction: Evidence from the levels-of-processing span task"
630:
Kelley, WM; Macrae CN; Wyland CL; Caglar S; Inati S; Heatherton TF (2002). "Finding the Self? An Event-Related fMRI Study".
1325:
Cloitre, M; Liebowitz MR (1991). "Memory bias in panic disorder: An investigation of the cognitive avoidance hypothesis".
589:
506:"Evidence for cortical encoding specificity in episodic memory: memory-induced re-activation of picture processing areas"
2034:
1935:
1822:
247:
2085:
1918:
182:
58:
components) leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. Conversely, deep processing (e.g.,
2198:
2143:
2118:
1948:
1925:
1875:
1780:
505:
1885:
1651:
556:"Investigating dissociations among memory measures: Support for a transfer-appropriate processing framework"
399:
Craik, F. I., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory.
2481:
2292:
2252:
2153:
2122:
1760:
1548:
1238:
870:
Intraub, H; Nicklos S (1985). "Levels of processing and picture memory: the physical superiority effect".
639:
300:
202:
Auditory stimuli follow conventional levels-of-processing rules, although are somewhat weaker in general
2307:
2022:
1908:
1880:
1865:
1860:
1698:
843:
Baddeley, A.; Warrington, E. (1970). "Amnesia and the distinction between long- and short-term memory".
97:
89:
46:
1440:"Enhanced and diminished visuo-spatial information processing in autism depends on stimulus complexity"
555:
2191:
2175:
2054:
1812:
1765:
1755:
1543:
1491:
1129:
1243:
644:
2322:
2222:
1913:
1797:
1745:
1713:
1693:
1439:
276:
59:
1040:"Visual and tactile memory for 2-D patterns: Effects of changes in size and lef-right orientation"
718:
Schacter, DL; McGlynn SM (1989). "Implicit memory: Effects of elaboration depend on unitization".
112:
value if it is highly compatible with preexisting semantic structures (Craik, 1972). According to
2419:
2242:
2187:
2180:
2148:
2049:
2044:
1996:
1974:
1943:
1770:
1420:
1377:
1342:
1307:
1264:
930:
751:
743:
665:
536:
206:
value when compared with vision. Some studies suggest that auditory weakness is only present for
35:
2404:
189:(capitalization, letter and word shape), phonological (word sound) and semantic (word meaning)
2455:
2443:
2414:
2262:
2133:
2108:
2064:
1991:
1969:
1870:
1807:
1775:
1750:
1718:
1703:
1613:
1583:
1521:
1462:
1412:
1299:
1256:
1211:
1157:
1096:
1088:
1020:
895:
887:
825:
786:
735:
700:
657:
612:
528:
479:
440:
323:
272:
268:
259:
190:
177:
2394:
2347:
2317:
2272:
2128:
2059:
2012:
1817:
1792:
1678:
1638:
1526:
1454:
1404:
1369:
1334:
1291:
1248:
1201:
1191:
1147:
1137:
1080:
1051:
1010:
1000:
961:
922:
879:
852:
817:
778:
727:
692:
649:
604:
570:
520:
471:
460:"Conceptual automaticity in recognition memory: Levels-of-processing effects on familiarity"
430:
316:
292:
288:
113:
950:"Incidental retrieval processes influence explicit test performance with data-limited cues"
17:
2476:
2332:
2312:
2287:
2277:
2232:
2227:
1981:
1953:
1688:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1531:
1484:
1206:
211:
207:
118:
985:
913:
Craik, FIM; Lockhart RS (1972). "Levels of processing: A framework for memory research".
291:. In particular, levels-of-processing effects appear to be strengthened in patients with
1176:
1133:
1116:"Neuroanatomical Correlates of Encoding in Episodic Memory: Levels of Processing Effect"
267:
word manipulations. Synaptic aspects of word recognition have been correlated with the
2399:
2363:
2257:
1855:
1802:
1628:
1598:
1578:
1565:
296:
121:
experiments, where subjects report false memories when presented with related stimuli.
1408:
1295:
926:
856:
524:
2470:
2378:
2368:
2342:
2337:
2297:
2282:
2247:
2170:
2017:
1845:
1708:
1683:
1646:
1603:
1593:
1588:
1573:
1381:
1152:
1115:
1015:
74:
1424:
1346:
934:
755:
540:
2409:
2373:
2327:
2237:
2080:
1895:
1850:
1837:
1827:
1787:
1507:
1311:
1268:
669:
357:
335:
203:
109:
42:
1395:
Toichi, M; Kamio Y (2002). "Long-term memory and levels-of-processing in autism".
2267:
2138:
2092:
1084:
782:
696:
608:
487:
361:
186:
55:
1005:
883:
574:
475:
334:
Panic disorders appear to modify levels-of-processing by increasing ability to
2302:
2165:
1732:
1252:
1196:
653:
1092:
891:
739:
1538:
805:
255:
1466:
1458:
1416:
1303:
1260:
1215:
1142:
986:"The functional roles of prefrontal cortex in episodic memory. I. Encoding"
829:
661:
532:
444:
1373:
1161:
1100:
1024:
899:
790:
704:
616:
483:
2027:
304:
264:
51:
1740:
1338:
1056:
1039:
966:
949:
747:
683:
Roediger, HL (1990). "Implicit memory: Retention without remembering".
435:
418:
1282:
Grady, CL; Craik FIM (2000). "Changes in memory processing with age".
1114:
Kapur, S; FIM Craik; E Tulving; AA Wilson; S Houle; GM Brown (1994).
821:
39:
731:
419:"The effects of a levels-of-processing manipulation on false recall"
872:
Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
810:
Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
771:
Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
563:
Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
222:
234:
1480:
1476:
287:
Levels-of-processing effects interact in various ways with
1438:
Bertone, A; Mottron L; Jelenic P; Faubert J (2005-10-01).
254:
techniques have shown that higher levels of processing
590:"The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis"
504:
Vaidya, CJ; Zhao M; Desmond JE; Gabrieli JDE (2002).
2387:
2356:
2215:
2208:
2101:
2073:
2005:
1962:
1934:
1894:
1836:
1731:
1637:
1612:
1564:
1557:
1514:
1175:Friederici, AD; Opitz B; Yves von Cramon D (2000).
1038:Srinivas K, Kavitha; Greene AJ; Easton RD (1997).
915:Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior
348:meaning over words selected by numerical order.
1121:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1071:Schab, FR (1991). "Odor memory: taking stock".
845:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
1492:
1362:International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
8:
499:
497:
1623:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
984:Fletcher, PC; Shallice T; Dolan RJ (1998).
979:
977:
464:Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology
401:Journal of experimental Psychology: general
2212:
1561:
1499:
1485:
1477:
38:and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972, describes
1242:
1205:
1195:
1151:
1141:
1055:
1014:
1004:
965:
643:
434:
143:Implicit memory and levels-of-processing
65:This theory contradicts the multi-store
374:
252:functional magnetic resonance imaging
7:
246:Several brain imaging studies using
804:Rose, N. S.; Craik, F. M. (2012).
720:The American Journal of Psychology
25:
1904:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
1231:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1044:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
954:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
632:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
423:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
2449:
2437:
588:Symons, CS; Thompson BT (1997).
417:Rhodes, MG; Anastasi JS (2000).
73:In a study from 1975 (Craik and
1284:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
322:imaging studies show decreased
260:left inferior prefrontal cortex
94:transfer-appropriate processing
27:A psychological model of memory
2114:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
1987:Memory and social interactions
1327:Cognitive Therapy and Research
1207:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-D753-7
311:Age-related memory degradation
295:, selectively strengthened in
293:age-related memory degradation
108:A stimulus will have a higher
67:Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model
1:
1409:10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00163-4
1296:10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00073-8
927:10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X
857:10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80048-2
525:10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00053-2
210:(direct recall), rather than
1823:Retrieval-induced forgetting
248:positron emission tomography
1085:10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.242
948:Habib, R; Nyberg L (1997).
783:10.1037/0278-7393.18.6.1251
697:10.1037/0003-066X.45.9.1043
609:10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.371
18:Levels of processing effect
2498:
2161:Levels of Processing model
2086:World Memory Championships
1919:Lost in the mall technique
1766:dissociative (psychogenic)
884:10.1037/0278-7393.11.2.284
575:10.1037/0278-7393.15.4.657
476:10.1037/1196-1961.50.1.123
314:
303:patients, and reversed in
277:extrastriate visual cortex
183:picture superiority effect
32:Levels of Processing model
2432:
1253:10.1162/08989290260138672
1016:21.11116/0000-0001-A1F6-3
654:10.1162/08989290260138672
125:Specificity of processing
2199:The Seven Sins of Memory
2144:Intermediate-term memory
1949:Indirect tests of memory
1926:Recovered-memory therapy
1876:Misattribution of memory
1006:10.1093/brain/121.7.1239
299:patients, unaffected in
1886:Source-monitoring error
1197:10.1093/cercor/10.7.698
342:
2293:George Armitage Miller
2253:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
1143:10.1073/pnas.91.6.2008
1073:Psychological Bulletin
597:Psychological Bulletin
324:left-prefrontal cortex
269:left frontal operculum
2456:Philosophy portal
2444:Psychology portal
2308:Henry L. Roediger III
1909:False memory syndrome
1881:Misinformation effect
1861:Imagination inflation
1374:10.1002/gps.930060806
685:American Psychologist
134:Self-reference effect
98:self-reference effect
1813:Motivated forgetting
1459:10.1093/brain/awh561
554:Blaxton, TA (1989).
2323:Arthur P. Shimamura
2223:Richard C. Atkinson
2040:Effects of exercise
1914:Memory implantation
1798:Interference theory
1714:Selective retention
1694:Meaningful learning
1134:1994PNAS...91.2008K
343:Alzheimer's disease
301:Alzheimer's disease
60:semantic processing
2420:Andriy Slyusarchuk
2243:Hermann Ebbinghaus
2149:Involuntary memory
2050:Memory improvement
2035:Effects of alcohol
1997:Transactive memory
1975:Politics of memory
1944:Exceptional memory
1339:10.1007/BF01173032
1057:10.3758/BF03214345
967:10.3758/BF03210786
436:10.3758/BF03210735
36:Fergus I. M. Craik
2464:
2463:
2428:
2427:
2415:Cosmos Rossellius
2263:Marcia K. Johnson
2134:Exosomatic memory
2119:Context-dependent
2109:Absent-mindedness
1992:Memory conformity
1970:Collective memory
1871:Memory conformity
1808:Memory inhibition
1727:
1726:
1719:Tip of the tongue
1453:(10): 2430–2441.
519:(12): 2136–2143.
458:Toth, JP (1996).
273:prefrontal cortex
16:(Redirected from
2489:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2395:Jonathan Hancock
2348:Robert Stickgold
2318:Richard Shiffrin
2273:Elizabeth Loftus
2213:
2129:Childhood memory
1936:Research methods
1818:Repressed memory
1793:Forgetting curve
1781:transient global
1652:Autobiographical
1562:
1501:
1494:
1487:
1478:
1471:
1470:
1444:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1397:Neuropsychologia
1392:
1386:
1385:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1246:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1209:
1199:
1181:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1155:
1145:
1128:(6): 2008–2011.
1111:
1105:
1104:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1059:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1018:
1008:
999:(7): 1239–1248.
990:
981:
972:
971:
969:
945:
939:
938:
910:
904:
903:
867:
861:
860:
840:
834:
833:
822:10.1037/a0026976
816:(4): 1019–1029.
801:
795:
794:
777:(6): 1251–1269.
766:
760:
759:
715:
709:
708:
691:(9): 1043–1056.
680:
674:
673:
647:
627:
621:
620:
594:
585:
579:
578:
560:
551:
545:
544:
513:Neuropsychologia
510:
501:
492:
491:
486:. Archived from
455:
449:
448:
438:
414:
408:
397:
391:
388:
382:
379:
317:Memory and aging
289:mental disorders
283:Mental disorders
155:Long-term memory
114:semantic network
21:
2497:
2496:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2450:
2448:
2438:
2436:
2424:
2405:Dominic O'Brien
2383:
2352:
2333:Susumu Tonegawa
2313:Daniel Schacter
2288:Eleanor Maguire
2278:Geoffrey Loftus
2233:Stephen J. Ceci
2228:Robert A. Bjork
2204:
2123:state-dependent
2097:
2069:
2001:
1982:Cultural memory
1958:
1954:Memory disorder
1930:
1890:
1832:
1723:
1633:
1608:
1553:
1510:
1505:
1475:
1474:
1442:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1359:
1358:
1354:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1244:10.1.1.522.2494
1228:
1227:
1223:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1070:
1069:
1065:
1037:
1036:
1032:
988:
983:
982:
975:
947:
946:
942:
912:
911:
907:
869:
868:
864:
842:
841:
837:
803:
802:
798:
768:
767:
763:
732:10.2307/1422950
717:
716:
712:
682:
681:
677:
645:10.1.1.522.2494
629:
628:
624:
592:
587:
586:
582:
558:
553:
552:
548:
508:
503:
502:
495:
457:
456:
452:
416:
415:
411:
398:
394:
389:
385:
380:
376:
371:
354:
345:
332:
330:Panic disorders
319:
313:
285:
244:
242:Neural evidence
232:
220:
212:implicit memory
208:explicit memory
200:
175:
166:
157:
145:
136:
127:
119:implicit memory
106:
87:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2495:
2493:
2485:
2484:
2479:
2469:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2446:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2400:Paul R. McHugh
2397:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2258:Ivan Izquierdo
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2195:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2116:
2111:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2089:
2088:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2015:
2009:
2007:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1940:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1911:
1906:
1900:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1856:Hindsight bias
1853:
1848:
1842:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1803:Memory erasure
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1761:post-traumatic
1758:
1753:
1748:
1737:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1699:Personal-event
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1654:
1649:
1643:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1629:Working memory
1626:
1618:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1599:Motor learning
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1570:
1568:
1559:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1518:
1516:
1515:Basic concepts
1512:
1511:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1496:
1489:
1481:
1473:
1472:
1430:
1403:(7): 964–969.
1387:
1368:(8): 583–588.
1352:
1333:(5): 371–386.
1317:
1290:(2): 224–231.
1274:
1237:(5): 785–794.
1221:
1190:(7): 698–705.
1167:
1106:
1063:
1050:(4): 535–540.
1030:
973:
960:(1): 130–133.
940:
905:
862:
851:(2): 176–189.
835:
796:
761:
726:(2): 151–181.
710:
675:
638:(5): 785–794.
622:
603:(3): 371–394.
580:
569:(4): 657–668.
546:
493:
490:on 2008-01-24.
450:
409:
392:
383:
373:
372:
370:
367:
353:
350:
344:
341:
331:
328:
315:Main article:
312:
309:
297:panic disorder
284:
281:
243:
240:
231:
228:
219:
216:
199:
196:
174:
171:
165:
162:
156:
153:
144:
141:
135:
132:
126:
123:
105:
102:
86:
83:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2494:
2483:
2482:Memory biases
2480:
2478:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2457:
2447:
2445:
2435:
2434:
2431:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2379:Clive Wearing
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2343:Endel Tulving
2341:
2339:
2338:Anne Treisman
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2298:Brenda Milner
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2283:James McGaugh
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2248:Sigmund Freud
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2193:
2192:retrospective
2189:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2171:Muscle memory
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2018:Art of memory
2016:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1924:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1866:Memory biases
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1846:Confabulation
1844:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1838:Memory errors
1835:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1756:post-hypnotic
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1709:Rote learning
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1684:Hyperthymesia
1682:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1647:Active recall
1645:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1544:Consolidation
1542:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1497:
1495:
1490:
1488:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1441:
1434:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1225:
1222:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1184:Cereb. Cortex
1178:
1171:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1079:(2): 242–51.
1078:
1074:
1067:
1064:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1034:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
998:
994:
987:
980:
978:
974:
968:
963:
959:
955:
951:
944:
941:
936:
932:
928:
924:
921:(6): 671–84.
920:
916:
909:
906:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
878:(2): 284–98.
877:
873:
866:
863:
858:
854:
850:
846:
839:
836:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
800:
797:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
765:
762:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
714:
711:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
679:
676:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
646:
641:
637:
633:
626:
623:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
591:
584:
581:
576:
572:
568:
564:
557:
550:
547:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
507:
500:
498:
494:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
470:(1): 123–38.
469:
465:
461:
454:
451:
446:
442:
437:
432:
429:(1): 158–62.
428:
424:
420:
413:
410:
406:
402:
396:
393:
387:
384:
378:
375:
368:
366:
363:
359:
351:
349:
340:
337:
329:
327:
325:
318:
310:
308:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
282:
280:
278:
274:
270:
266:
261:
257:
253:
249:
241:
239:
236:
229:
227:
224:
217:
215:
213:
209:
205:
197:
195:
192:
188:
184:
179:
172:
170:
164:Sensory modes
163:
161:
154:
152:
149:
142:
140:
133:
131:
124:
122:
120:
115:
111:
103:
101:
99:
95:
91:
84:
82:
80:
76:
71:
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
48:
44:
41:
37:
34:, created by
33:
19:
2410:Ben Pridmore
2328:Larry Squire
2238:Susan Clancy
2197:
2160:
2081:Memory sport
2006:Other topics
1896:False memory
1851:Cryptomnesia
1828:Weapon focus
1788:Decay theory
1549:Neuroanatomy
1508:Human memory
1450:
1446:
1433:
1400:
1396:
1390:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1330:
1326:
1320:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1234:
1230:
1224:
1187:
1183:
1170:
1125:
1119:
1109:
1076:
1072:
1066:
1047:
1043:
1033:
996:
992:
957:
953:
943:
918:
914:
908:
875:
871:
865:
848:
844:
838:
813:
809:
799:
774:
770:
764:
723:
719:
713:
688:
684:
678:
635:
631:
625:
600:
596:
583:
566:
562:
549:
516:
512:
488:the original
467:
463:
453:
426:
422:
412:
404:
400:
395:
386:
377:
362:orthographic
358:phonological
355:
346:
333:
320:
286:
245:
233:
221:
201:
187:orthographic
178:Visual input
176:
167:
158:
150:
146:
137:
128:
107:
88:
78:
72:
64:
56:orthographic
31:
29:
2268:Eric Kandel
2216:Researchers
2188:Prospective
2139:Free recall
2093:Shas Pollak
1746:anterograde
1662:Declarative
104:Familiarity
90:Familiarity
2471:Categories
2303:Lynn Nadel
2181:intertrial
2166:Metamemory
2154:flashbacks
2074:In society
1771:retrograde
1733:Forgetting
1704:Procedural
1614:Short-term
1584:Eyewitness
1443:(abstract)
369:References
307:patients.
117:tested in
2055:Nutrition
1963:In groups
1776:selective
1751:childhood
1679:Flashbulb
1639:Long-term
1539:Attention
1382:144360572
1239:CiteSeerX
1093:0033-2909
892:0278-7393
740:0002-9556
640:CiteSeerX
407:(3), 268.
256:correlate
85:Modifiers
2357:Patients
2028:mnemonic
2023:chunking
1689:Implicit
1672:Semantic
1667:Episodic
1657:Explicit
1522:Encoding
1467:15958508
1425:37972435
1417:11900748
1347:24229675
1304:10753795
1261:12167262
1216:10906316
935:14153362
830:22268911
756:31679776
662:12167262
541:17108548
533:12208009
445:10780030
305:autistic
265:semantic
191:encoding
52:phonemic
2176:Priming
2102:Related
2045:Emotion
1741:Amnesia
1579:Eidetic
1566:Sensory
1527:Storage
1312:9567476
1269:2917200
1162:8134340
1130:Bibcode
1101:2034752
1025:9679776
900:3157769
791:1447550
748:1422950
705:2221571
670:2917200
617:9136641
484:8653094
223:Tactile
198:Hearing
79:italics
75:Tulving
47:stimuli
2477:Memory
2209:People
2194:memory
2125:memory
2065:Trauma
1604:Visual
1594:Iconic
1589:Haptic
1574:Echoic
1532:Recall
1465:
1423:
1415:
1380:
1345:
1310:
1302:
1267:
1259:
1241:
1214:
1160:
1150:
1099:
1091:
1023:
933:
898:
890:
828:
789:
754:
746:
738:
703:
668:
660:
642:
615:
539:
531:
482:
443:
352:Autism
336:recall
204:recall
173:Vision
110:recall
96:, the
43:recall
40:memory
2388:Other
2060:Sleep
2013:Aging
1558:Types
1447:Brain
1421:S2CID
1378:S2CID
1343:S2CID
1308:S2CID
1265:S2CID
1180:(pdf)
1153:43298
993:Brain
989:(pdf)
931:S2CID
752:S2CID
744:JSTOR
666:S2CID
593:(pdf)
559:(PDF)
537:S2CID
509:(PDF)
230:Smell
218:Touch
2190:and
2121:and
1463:PMID
1413:PMID
1300:PMID
1257:PMID
1212:PMID
1158:PMID
1097:PMID
1089:ISSN
1021:PMID
896:PMID
888:ISSN
826:PMID
787:PMID
736:ISSN
701:PMID
658:PMID
613:PMID
529:PMID
480:PMID
441:PMID
360:and
250:and
235:Odor
54:and
30:The
1455:doi
1451:128
1405:doi
1370:doi
1335:doi
1292:doi
1249:doi
1202:hdl
1192:doi
1148:PMC
1138:doi
1081:doi
1077:109
1052:doi
1011:hdl
1001:doi
997:121
962:doi
923:doi
880:doi
853:doi
818:doi
779:doi
728:doi
724:102
693:doi
650:doi
605:doi
601:121
571:doi
521:doi
472:doi
431:doi
405:104
45:of
2473::
2374:NA
2369:KC
2364:HM
1461:.
1449:.
1445:.
1419:.
1411:.
1401:40
1399:.
1376:.
1364:.
1341:.
1331:15
1329:.
1306:.
1298:.
1288:10
1286:.
1263:.
1255:.
1247:.
1235:14
1233:.
1210:.
1200:.
1188:10
1186:.
1182:.
1156:.
1146:.
1136:.
1126:91
1124:.
1118:.
1095:.
1087:.
1075:.
1046:.
1042:.
1019:.
1009:.
995:.
991:.
976:^
956:.
952:.
929:.
919:11
917:.
894:.
886:.
876:11
874:.
847:.
824:.
814:38
812:.
808:.
785:.
775:18
773:.
750:.
742:.
734:.
722:.
699:.
689:45
687:.
664:.
656:.
648:.
636:14
634:.
611:.
599:.
595:.
567:15
565:.
561:.
535:.
527:.
517:40
515:.
511:.
496:^
478:.
468:50
466:.
462:.
439:.
425:.
421:.
403:,
279:.
92:,
1625:"
1621:"
1500:e
1493:t
1486:v
1469:.
1457::
1427:.
1407::
1384:.
1372::
1366:6
1349:.
1337::
1314:.
1294::
1271:.
1251::
1218:.
1204::
1194::
1164:.
1140::
1132::
1103:.
1083::
1060:.
1054::
1048:4
1027:.
1013::
1003::
970:.
964::
958:4
937:.
925::
902:.
882::
859:.
855::
849:9
832:.
820::
793:.
781::
758:.
730::
707:.
695::
672:.
652::
619:.
607::
577:.
573::
543:.
523::
474::
447:.
433::
427:7
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.