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one of the highest mortality rates among pathogens in the world. Mortality rates have not seen a significant decrease due to its growing resistance to certain antibiotics. Although years of research have been devoted to the creation of a vaccine, one still does not exist. TB is extremely transmissible, contributing significantly to its very high level of virulence. TB was considered one of the most prevalent diseases, and did not have a cure until the discovery of
643:. Both of these bacteria are well known for causing nosocomial (hospital-linked) infections, and often, these strains found in hospitals are antibiotic resistant because of adaptations to wide spread antibiotic use. When both bacteria are spread, serious health conditions arise. Many people are hospitalized each year after becoming infected, with some dying as a result. Since 1993, some strains of
3524:
32:
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252:
develops resistance to drugs by spontaneous mutations in its genomes. These types of mutations can lead to genotype and phenotype changes that can contribute to reproductive success, leading to the evolution of resistant bacteria. Resistance to one drug is common, and this is why treatment is usually
231:
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an obligate pathogen that has evolved to ensure its persistence in human populations. This is evident in that
Mycobacterium tuberculosis must cause a pulmonary disease in order to be successfully transmitted from one person to another. Tuberculosis better known as TB has
477:
to penicillin and other beta-lactams is increasing worldwide. It was identified as one of six leading pathogens for disease associated with resistance in 2019 and that year there were 596,000 deaths globally of people with drug-resistant infection from the pathogen. The major mechanism of resistance
1264:
Hidron AI, Edwards JR, Patel J, Horan TC, Sievert DM, Pollock DA, Fridkin SK (November 2008). "NHSN annual update: antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: annual summary of data reported to the
National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease
325:
is the most common first-line treatment, but the commonly-used 1 gram single-dose azithromycin treatment can lead to the bacteria commonly developing resistance to azithromycin. An alternative five-day treatment with azithromycin showed no development of antimicrobial resistance. Efficacy of
567:, a sexually transmitted disease that can result in discharge and inflammation at the urethra, cervix, pharynx, or rectum. It can cause pelvic pain, pain on urination, penile and vaginal discharge, as well as systemic symptoms. It can also cause severe reproductive complications.
41:
40:
584:(CRE), also known as carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE), were increasing among patients in medical facilities. CRE are resistant to nearly all available antibiotics. Almost half of hospital patients who get bloodstream CRE infections die from the infection.
659:
Although mutation alone plays a huge role in the development of antibiotic resistance, a 2008 study found that high survival rates after exposure to antibiotics could not be accounted for by mutation alone. This study focused on the development of resistance in
38:
37:
34:
33:
39:
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developed because of epigenetic inheritance rather than by direct inheritance of a mutated gene. This was further supported by data showing that reversion to antibiotic sensitivity was relatively common as well. This could only be explained by epigenetics.
781:. It was identified as one of the six leading pathogens for deaths associated with resistance in 2019 and that year there were 334,000 deaths globally of people with drug-resistant infection from the pathogen. One of the most worrisome characteristics of
598:)-producing bacteria are a group of emerging highly drug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli causing infections associated with significant morbidity and mortality whose incidence is rapidly increasing in a variety of clinical settings around the world.
293:
is a small pathogenic bacterium that lives on the ciliated epithelial cells of the urinary and genital tracts in humans. It is still controversial whether or not this bacterium is to be recognized as a sexually transmitted pathogen. Infection with
478:
involves the introduction of mutations in genes encoding penicillin-binding proteins. Selective pressure is thought to play an important role, and use of beta-lactam antibiotics has been implicated as a risk factor for infection and colonization.
36:
136:, which flourishes under these conditions. Pseudomembranous colitis can follow, creating generalized inflammation of the colon and the development of "pseudomembrane", a viscous collection of inflammatory cells, fibrin, and necrotic cells.
801:
has the ability to produce 4-hydroxy-2-alkylquinolines (HAQs), and it has been found that HAQs have prooxidant effects and overexpressing modestly increased susceptibility to antibiotics. The study experimented with the
1337:"Antimicrobial Resistance Still Poses a Public Health Threat: A Conversation With Edward J. Septimus, MD, FIDSA, FACP, FSHEA, Clinical Professor of Internal Medicine at Texas A&M Health Science Center"
724:
was identified as one of the six leading pathogens for deaths associated with resistance in 2019 and that year there were 423,000 deaths globally of people with drug-resistant infection from the pathogen.
655:
was identified as one of the six leading pathogens for deaths associated with resistance in 2019 and that year there were 829,000 deaths globally of people with drug-resistant infection from the pathogen.
1222:
Loo VG, Poirier L, Miller MA, Oughton M, Libman MD, Michaud S, Bourgault AM, Nguyen T, Frenette C, Kelly M, Vibien A, Brassard P, Fenn S, Dewar K, Hudson TJ, Horn R, René P, Monczak Y, Dascal A (2005).
602:
was identified as one of six leading pathogens for disease associated with resistance in 2019 and that year there were 642,000 deaths globally of people with drug-resistant infection from the pathogen.
809:
and found that a disruption of relA and spoT genes produced an inactivation of the
Stringent response (SR) in cells with nutrient limitation, which provides cells be more susceptible to antibiotics.
144:
was reported as the causative agent of large outbreaks of diarrheal disease in hospitals in New York, Arizona, Florida, and
Massachusetts between 1989 and 1992. Geographically dispersed outbreaks of
342:
can be used as a second-line treatment in case azithromycin is not able to eradicate the infection. However, resistance against moxifloxacin has been observed since 2007, thought to be due to
2457:
681:
modification; however, the important point is that both inheritance of random mutations and epigenetic markers can result in the expression of antibiotic resistance genes.Resistance to
673:
is a type of inheritance in which gene expression is altered rather than the genetic code itself. There are many modes by which this alteration of gene expression can occur, including
35:
386:
is one of the major resistant pathogens. It caused more than 100,000 deaths attributed to AMR in 2019 and MRSA was present in 748,000 global deaths that year. Found on the
2485:
1042:
Baxter R, Ray GT, Fireman BH (January 2008). "Case-control study of antibiotic use and subsequent
Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in hospitalized patients".
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96:
caused almost 500,000 infections in the United States over a year period. Associated with these infections were an estimated 15,000 deaths. The CDC estimates that
317:
infections is becoming increasingly difficult due to rapidly developing multi-drug resistance, and diagnosis and treatment is further hampered by the fact that
407:
376:
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Antibiotics, especially those with a broad activity spectrum (such as clindamycin) disrupt normal intestinal flora. This can lead to an overgrowth of
274:, and other common treatments has become an increasingly relevant clinical challenge. Evidence is lacking for whether these bacteria have plasmids.
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antibiotics (heretofore often the treatment of last resort for resistant infections) are generally not effective against KPC-producing organisms.
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causes diarrhea (often bloody), fever, and abdominal cramps. Serious complications such as temporary paralysis can also occur. Physicians rely on
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Johnson S, Samore MH, Farrow KA, Killgore GE, Tenover FC, Lyras D, Rood JI, DeGirolami P, Baltch AL, Rafferty ME, Pear SM, Gerding DN (1999).
1085:
Gifford AH, Kirkland KB (December 2006). "Risk factors for
Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea on an adult hematology-oncology ward".
2798:
2763:
2370:
Nguyen D, Joshi-Datar A, Lepine F, Bauerle E, Olakanmi O, Beer K, McKay G, Siehnel R, Schafhauser J, Wang Y, Britigan BE, Singh PK (2011).
125:
Some research suggests the overuse of antibiotics in the raising of livestock is contributing to outbreaks of bacterial infections such as
2506:
413:(MRSA) was first detected in Britain in 1961, and it is now "quite common" in hospitals. MRSA was responsible for 37% of fatal cases of
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1336:
553:
228:(multidrug-resistant TB). Globally, MDR TB causes 150,000 deaths annually. The rise of the HIV/AIDS epidemic has contributed to this.
298:
sometimes produces clinical symptoms, or a combination of symptoms, but sometimes can be asymptomatic. It causes inflammation in the
1225:"A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality"
225:
216:
189:
2283:"Acinetobacter baumannii infections among patients at military medical facilities treating injured U.S. service members, 2002–2004"
394:
of around a third of the population, it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was one of the earlier bacteria in which
664:
to three antibiotic drugs: ampicillin, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid. The researchers found that some antibiotic resistance in
3482:
72:
1913:
Murray CJ, Ikuta KS, Sharara F, Swetschinski L, Aguilar GR, Gray A, Han C, Bisignano C, Rao P, Wool E, Johnson SC (2022-01-19).
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Gerding DN, Johnson S, Peterson LR, Mulligan ME, Silva J (1995). "Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis".
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can be life-threatening. Infections are most frequent in people who have had recent medical and/or antibiotic treatment.
3576:
2955:
3145:
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1273:(11). National Healthcare Safety Network Team; Participating National Healthcare Safety Network Facilities: 996–1011.
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includes numerous mechanisms for antibiotic resistance, many of which are located on highly mobile genetic elements.
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2699:
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1130:"Risk factors for acquisition of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea among outpatients at a cancer hospital"
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infections. A few cases have been described where doxycycline, azithromycin and moxifloxacin had all failed, but
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3159:
2578:
2573:
2313:"Medscape abstract on Acinetobacter baumannii: Acinetobacter baumannii: An Emerging Multidrug-resistant Threat"
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Unemo M, Jensen JS (10 January 2017). "Antimicrobial-resistant sexually transmitted infections: gonorrhoea and
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bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the
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is a gram-negative bacteria that causes pneumonia or bloodstream infections in critically ill patients.
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164:
2024:"Resistance Determinants and Mobile Genetic Elements of an NDM-1-Encoding Klebsiella pneumoniae Strain"
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1975:"Antibiotic selection pressure and resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes"
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2372:"Active Starvation Responses Mediate Antibiotic Tolerance in Biofilms and Nutrient-Limited Bacteria"
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1614:
1409:"Co-evolution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Homo sapiens, Brites, D., & Gagneux, S. (2015)"
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antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, were also reported in North
America in 2005.
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Kristich CJ, Rice LB, Arias CA (2014-01-01). Gilmore MS, Clewell DB, Ike Y, Shankar N (eds.).
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387:
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in the 23S rRNA gene. The same SNPs are thought to be responsible for resistance against
2477:
CDC Guideline "Management of
Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in Healthcare Settings, 2006"
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2201:
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is its low antibiotic susceptibility, which is attributable to a concerted action of
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709:
531:
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456:: GAS) infections can usually be treated with many different antibiotics. Strains of
426:
362:
350:
111:
1915:"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis"
1564:
Louw GE, Warren RM, Gey van
Pittius NC, McEvoy CR, Van Helden PD, Victor TC (2009).
1393:
1114:
1071:
837:
Baym M, Lieberman TD, Kelsic ED, Chait R, Gross R, Yelin I, Kishony R (2016-09-09).
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in 1943. However, the bacteria soon developed resistance. Since then, drugs such as
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lack the opportunity to interact with other bacteria in order to share plasmids.
3497:
2984:
2960:
2248:"Spread of antibiotic-resistance gene does not spell bacterial apocalypse — yet"
1529:
Zainuddin ZF, Dale JW (1990). "Does
Mycobacterium tuberculosis have plasmids?".
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670:
503:
399:
354:
137:
119:
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2081:
Arnold RS, Thom KA, Sharma S, Phillips M, Kristie Johnson J, Morgan DJ (2011).
464:
antibiotics have emerged; however, all strains remain uniformly susceptible to
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2186:"Epigenetic inheritance based evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria"
1938:
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resistance was found, in 1947, just four years after mass-production began.
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2008:
1990:
1956:
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is provided below. These bacteria have shown antibiotic resistance (or
2435:
Knowledge (XXG)'s health care articles can be viewed offline with the
1879:
1858:
1469:
1424:
2466:
2083:"Emergence of Klebsiella pneumoniae Carbapenemase-Producing Bacteria"
1619:
in a man with persistent urethritis: the tip of the British iceberg?"
743:
685:
first appear in 2011. An easier way for this resistance to spread, a
414:
81:
pathogen that causes diarrheal disease worldwide. Diarrhea caused by
1361:
1278:
1179:"Epidemics of diarrhea caused by a clindamycin-resistant strain of
1145:
1128:
Palmore TN, Sohn S, Malak SF, Eagan J, Sepkowitz KA (August 2005).
1087:
European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases
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257:(XDR TB) is TB that is also resistant to the second line of drugs.
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was then the antibiotic of choice, but has since been replaced by
100:
infection costs could amount to $ 3.8 billion over a 5-year span.
30:
1566:"A Balancing Act: Efflux/Influx in Mycobacterial Drug Resistance"
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797:) and the low permeability of the bacterial cellular envelopes.
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isolates from patients with recurrent nongonococcal urethritis"
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has decreased substantially, which is thought to occur through
1867:
Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology
789:
with chromosomally encoded antibiotic resistance genes (e.g.,
994:"Biggest Threats – Antibiotic/Antimicrobial Resistance – CDC"
839:"Spatiotemporal microbial evolution on antibiotic landscapes"
2331:"Efflux-mediated multiresistance in Gram-negative bacteria"
762:(MRAB), with a few isolates resistant to all drugs tested.
1311:
Enterococcal Infection—Treatment and Antibiotic Resistance
639:
can result from the consumption of contaminated food and
2022:
Hudson C, Bent Z, Meagher R, Williams K (June 7, 2014).
1499:
Gao Q, Li X (2010). "Transmission of MDR tuberculosis".
1339:. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2013-04-17
1331:
1329:
2281:
Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC). (2004).
1857:
Jensen J, Cusini M, Gomberg M, Moi M (9 August 2016).
580:
As of 2013 hard-to-treat or untreatable infections of
45:
The evolution of bacteria on a "Mega-Plate" petri dish
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538:for treating patients with severe disease although
310:in the urinary tract, and burning while urinating.
1613:Suneta S, Parkhouse A, Gillian D (24 April 2017).
306:) both in men and women, which is associated with
89:infections commonly occur during hospitalization.
2486:Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy
2132:"Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance"
1787:
1785:
1783:
1724:Anagrius C, Loré B, Jensen JS, Coenye T (2013).
1671:Yew HS, Anderson T, Coughlan E, Werno A (2011).
1968:
1966:
1314:. Boston: Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary.
943:: responding to a new threat from an old enemy"
563:is a sexually transmitted pathogen that causes
2184:Adam M, Murali B, Glenn NO, Potter SS (2008).
1524:
1522:
2700:
2507:
2241:
2239:
8:
1456:Herzog H (1998). "History of Tuberculosis".
542:is showing resistance to these antibiotics.
2179:
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2175:
1134:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
1044:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
720:have become very resistant to antibiotics.
647:have become resistant to multiple types of
377:Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
365:was still able to eradicate the infection.
357:, have a low clinical eradication rate for
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1973:Albrich WC, Monnet DL, Harbarth S (2004).
730:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
429:are resistant to penicillin, methicillin,
2664:Antibiotics in poultry farming in America
2403:
2346:
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2209:
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2106:
2057:
2047:
1998:
1946:
1878:
1840:"Mycoplasma Genitalium Treatment Choices"
1763:
1753:
1730:. Observations from a Swedish STD Clinic"
1700:
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1432:
1362:"Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis"
1240:
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1153:
988:
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984:
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980:
978:
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421:in 1999, up from 4% in 1991. Half of all
338:, which is prescribed in some countries.
106:colitis is most strongly associated with
2456:) is being considered for deletion. See
1501:Drug Discovery Today: Disease Mechanisms
406:because of significant kidney toxicity.
224:(TB) resistant to antibiotics is called
3519:
829:
732:(CDC) reported an increasing number of
582:carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae
321:infections are not routinely detected.
2669:Subtherapeutic antibiotic use in swine
1366:Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases
2463:List of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
1908:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1570:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
594:Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (
51:list of antibiotic resistant bacteria
18:List of antibiotic resistant bacteria
7:
1265:Control and Prevention, 2006–2007".
2335:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
1615:"Macrolide and quinolone-resistant
758:were treated. Most of these showed
3493:Minimum bactericidal concentration
2472:Animation of Antibiotic Resistance
1407:Brites D, Gagneux S (2013-04-17).
554:Antibiotic resistance in gonorrhea
25:
2488:(CIDRAP), University of Minnesota
2482:Antimicrobial Stewardship Project
2460:to help reach a consensus. ›
1673:"Induced macrolide resistance in
217:Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis
3587:Infectious disease-related lists
3534:
3522:
3483:Minimum inhibitory concentration
2429:
2348:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.00763.x
1681:Journal of Clinical Microbiology
92:According to a 2015 CDC report,
3423:WHO list of essential medicines
2916:Non-specific effect of vaccines
1623:Sexually Transmitted Infections
1187:New England Journal of Medicine
947:Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol
904:Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol
3478:Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics
2633:Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics
2246:Reardon S (21 December 2015).
253:done with more than one drug.
1:
3557:Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
3403:Functional analog (chemistry)
1931:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0
1267:Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol
255:Extensively drug-resistant TB
2956:Hill equation (biochemistry)
2287:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
2099:10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181fd7d5a
2049:10.1371/journal.pone.0099209
1859:"2016 European guideline on
1755:10.1371/journal.pone.0061481
1635:10.1136/sextrans-2016-053077
1543:10.1016/0041-3879(90)90060-l
1378:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283229fab
2659:Antibiotic use in livestock
2438:Medical Knowledge (XXG) app
2130:Davies J, Davies D (2010).
1513:10.1016/j.ddmec.2010.09.006
1200:10.1056/NEJM199911253412203
649:fluoroquinolone antibiotics
3603:
3471:Antimicrobial pharmacology
2951:Dose–response relationship
2881:Desensitization (medicine)
756:Operation Enduring Freedom
551:
374:
263:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
214:
210:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
3393:Coinduction (anesthetics)
2643:Production of antibiotics
2612:Antimicrobial stewardship
2260:10.1038/nature.2015.19037
1844:www.theonlineclinic.co.uk
1099:10.1007/s10096-006-0220-1
728:On November 5, 2004, the
178:. These strains include:
3458:Multiple drug resistance
3431:Tolerance and resistance
2799:Physiological antagonist
2574:Antimicrobial resistance
2458:templates for discussion
2087:Southern Medical Journal
819:Antimicrobial resistance
693:was discovered in 2015.
474:Streptococcus pneumoniae
55:antimicrobial resistance
3209:Neuropsychopharmacology
2971:Cheng-Prussoff Equation
2966:Del Castillo Katz model
2893:Other effects of ligand
2876:Receptor (biochemistry)
2794:Irreversible antagonist
2396:10.1126/science.1211037
2317:membership only website
1810:10.1038/nrurol.2016.268
863:10.1126/science.aag0822
748:Operation Iraqi Freedom
735:Acinetobacter baumannii
722:Acinetobacter baumannii
3572:Pharmaceuticals policy
3345:Classical pharmacology
3106:Plasma protein binding
3081:Volume of distribution
2789:Competitive antagonist
2586:Antibiotic prophylaxis
2569:Antibiotic sensitivity
2211:10.1186/1471-2148-8-52
2136:Microbiol Mol Biol Rev
1991:10.3201/eid1003.030252
1798:Nature Reviews Urology
787:multidrug efflux pumps
779:opportunistic pathogen
777:is a highly prevalent
774:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
767:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
449:Streptococcus pyogenes
408:Methicillin-resistant
308:mucopurulent discharge
46:
3453:Antibiotic resistance
3245:Clinical pharmacology
2764:Physiological agonist
2724:Ligand (biochemistry)
2148:10.1128/MMBR.00016-10
1861:Mycoplasma genitalium
1794:Mycoplasma genitalium
1728:Mycoplasma genitalium
1675:Mycoplasma genitalium
1617:Mycoplasma genitalium
1181:Clostridium difficile
941:Clostridium difficile
606:Klebsiella pneumoniae
600:Klebsiella pneumoniae
589:Klebsiella pneumoniae
560:Neisseria gonorrhoeae
547:Neisseria gonorrhoeae
410:Staphylococcus aureus
383:Staphylococcus aureus
370:Staphylococcus aureus
326:azithromycin against
315:Mycoplasma genitalium
296:Mycoplasma genitalium
290:Mycoplasma genitalium
283:Mycoplasma genitalium
190:vancomycin-resistant
176:nosocomial infections
165:Enterococcus faecalis
148:strains resistant to
74:Clostridium difficile
67:Clostridium difficile
44:
3562:Evolutionary biology
3350:Reverse pharmacology
3260:Pharmacoepidemiology
3101:Biological half-life
2981:Ligand binding assay
2855:Activity at receptor
2749:Irreversible agonist
2674:Pesticide resistance
1693:10.1128/JCM.02475-10
1582:10.1128/AAC.01577-08
1242:10.1056/NEJMoa051639
1018:"CDC Press Releases"
937:McDonald LC (2005).
760:multidrug resistance
715:Multidrug-resistant
571:Gamma proteobacteria
174:are associated with
171:Enterococcus faecium
162:Multidrug-resistant
3577:Veterinary medicine
3398:Combination therapy
3286:Pharmacoinformatics
3255:Medicinal chemistry
2861:Mechanism of action
2638:List of antibiotics
2388:2011Sci...334..982N
2202:2008BMCEE...8...52A
2040:2014PLoSO...999209H
1746:2013PLoSO...861481A
855:2016Sci...353.1147B
849:(6304): 1147–1151.
482:is responsible for
3368:Immunopharmacology
3318:Pharmacotoxicology
3219:Psychopharmacology
3011:Intrinsic activity
2911:Pleiotropy (drugs)
2832:Agonist-antagonist
2744:Endogenous agonist
1979:Emerg. Infect. Dis
1925:(10325): 629–655.
1183:in four hospitals"
675:methylation of DNA
576:Enterobacteriaceae
425:infections in the
47:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3466:
3465:
3363:Photopharmacology
3358:
3357:
3331:
3330:
3304:
3303:
3268:
3267:
3231:
3230:
3224:Electrophysiology
3214:Neuropharmacology
3169:
3168:
3119:
3118:
3055:
3054:
3042:Therapeutic index
2994:
2993:
2939:
2938:
2888:
2887:
2817:
2816:
2772:
2771:
2682:
2681:
2617:Antibiotic misuse
1880:10.1111/jdv.13849
1873:(10): 1650–1656.
1470:10.1159/000029220
1425:10.1111/imr.12264
1193:(23): 1645–1651.
42:
16:(Redirected from
3594:
3567:Health disasters
3539:
3538:
3537:
3527:
3526:
3518:
3468:
3428:
3408:Polypharmacology
3333:
3306:
3296:Pharmacogenomics
3291:Pharmacogenetics
3270:
3233:
3194:
3121:
3091:Rate of infusion
3066:
3061:Pharmacokinetics
2996:
2941:
2890:
2852:
2847:Pharmacodynamics
2827:Neurotransmitter
2809:Enzyme inhibitor
2774:
2729:
2709:
2702:
2695:
2686:
2596:Directed therapy
2516:
2509:
2502:
2493:
2433:
2418:
2417:
2407:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2350:
2329:Poole K (2004).
2326:
2320:
2319:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2243:
2234:
2233:
2223:
2213:
2181:
2170:
2169:
2159:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2110:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2061:
2051:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2002:
1970:
1961:
1960:
1950:
1910:
1893:
1892:
1882:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1789:
1778:
1777:
1767:
1757:
1721:
1715:
1714:
1704:
1687:(4): 1695–1696.
1668:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1593:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1526:
1517:
1516:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1436:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1360:LoBue P (2009).
1357:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1344:
1333:
1324:
1323:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1244:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1202:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1157:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1005:
1004:
990:
973:
972:
962:
934:
928:
927:
899:
893:
892:
882:
834:
630:Escherichia coli
388:mucous membranes
248:have been used.
108:fluoroquinolones
43:
21:
3602:
3601:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3591:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3535:
3533:
3521:
3513:
3511:
3502:
3462:
3448:Drug resistance
3426:
3382:
3354:
3327:
3323:Neurotoxicology
3300:
3264:
3227:
3189:
3183:
3165:
3115:
3111:Bioavailability
3096:Onset of action
3051:
2990:
2935:
2884:
2841:
2813:
2804:Inverse agonist
2768:
2754:Partial agonist
2718:
2713:
2683:
2678:
2647:
2621:
2600:
2591:Empiric therapy
2557:
2526:
2520:
2461:
2442:
2434:
2426:
2421:
2382:(6058): 982–6.
2369:
2368:
2364:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2245:
2244:
2237:
2183:
2182:
2173:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2080:
2079:
2075:
2021:
2020:
2016:
1972:
1971:
1964:
1912:
1911:
1896:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1838:
1837:
1833:
1791:
1790:
1781:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1528:
1527:
1520:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1342:
1340:
1335:
1334:
1327:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1027:
1025:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1002:
1000:
992:
991:
976:
936:
935:
931:
901:
900:
896:
836:
835:
831:
827:
815:
770:
706:
699:
697:Pseudomonadales
627:Infection with
625:
592:
578:
573:
556:
550:
523:
516:
445:
379:
373:
286:
276:M. tuberculosis
250:M. tuberculosis
219:
213:
160:
150:fluoroquinolone
70:
63:
31:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3600:
3598:
3590:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3549:
3548:
3544:
3543:
3531:
3508:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3488:Bacteriostatic
3485:
3480:
3474:
3472:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3438:Drug tolerance
3434:
3432:
3425:
3420:
3418:Lists of drugs
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3388:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3341:
3339:
3337:Drug discovery
3329:
3328:
3326:
3325:
3320:
3314:
3312:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3282:
3280:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3241:
3239:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3204:
3191:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3181:
3179:Bioequivalence
3176:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3163:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3127:
3125:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3078:
3072:
3070:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3013:
3008:
3002:
3000:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2947:
2945:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2923:
2921:Adverse effect
2918:
2913:
2908:
2896:
2894:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2866:Mode of action
2863:
2858:
2856:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2780:
2778:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2735:
2733:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2704:
2697:
2689:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2601:
2599:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2571:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2527:
2524:antimicrobials
2521:
2519:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2445:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2424:External links
2422:
2420:
2419:
2362:
2321:
2304:
2293:(45): 1063–6.
2273:
2235:
2190:BMC Evol. Biol
2171:
2142:(3): 417–433.
2122:
2073:
2014:
1962:
1894:
1849:
1831:
1804:(3): 139–125.
1779:
1726:"Treatment of
1716:
1663:
1629:(8): 556–557.
1605:
1556:
1518:
1491:
1448:
1399:
1349:
1325:
1300:
1279:10.1086/591861
1256:
1235:(23): 2442–9.
1214:
1169:
1146:10.1086/502602
1120:
1077:
1056:10.1086/524320
1034:
1024:. January 2016
1009:
974:
960:10.1086/502600
929:
916:10.1086/648363
910:(8): 459–477.
894:
828:
826:
823:
822:
821:
814:
811:
769:
764:
746:region during
705:
700:
698:
695:
641:polluted water
624:
615:
591:
586:
577:
574:
572:
569:
552:Main article:
549:
544:
522:
517:
515:
512:
471:Resistance of
444:
439:
375:Main article:
372:
367:
285:
280:
260:Resistance of
238:Selman Waksman
215:Main article:
212:
207:
159:
154:
112:cephalosporins
69:
64:
62:
59:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3599:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3582:Global issues
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3542:
3532:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3443:Tachyphylaxis
3441:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3360:
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3342:
3340:
3338:
3334:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
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3313:
3311:
3307:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3192:
3186:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3161:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
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3003:
3001:
2997:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2931:
2930:Neurotoxicity
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2899:Selectivity (
2898:
2897:
2895:
2891:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2837:Pharmacophore
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2765:
2762:
2760:
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2747:
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2736:
2734:
2730:
2727:
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2696:
2691:
2690:
2687:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2605:Social issues
2603:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2553:Antiparasitic
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2538:Antibacterial
2536:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2517:
2512:
2510:
2505:
2503:
2498:
2497:
2494:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2478:
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2473:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2455:
2454:
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2423:
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2393:
2389:
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2358:
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2322:
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2195:
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2167:
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2141:
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2133:
2126:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2077:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2034:(6): e99209.
2033:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1862:
1853:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1835:
1832:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
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1799:
1795:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1740:(4): e61481.
1739:
1735:
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1717:
1712:
1708:
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1576:(8): 3181–9.
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1372:(2): 167–73.
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1093:(12): 751–5.
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1049:
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804:P. aeruginosa
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799:P. aeruginosa
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792:
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784:
783:P. aeruginosa
780:
776:
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717:Acinetobacter
712:
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703:Acinetobacter
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541:
540:Campylobacter
537:
533:
532:ciprofloxacin
529:
528:
527:Campylobacter
521:
520:Campylobacter
518:
514:Gram negative
513:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
480:S. pneumoniae
476:
475:
469:
467:
463:
460:resistant to
459:
455:
454:Streptococcus
451:
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443:
442:Streptococcus
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412:
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405:
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397:
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389:
385:
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378:
371:
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364:
363:pristinamycin
360:
359:M. genitalium
356:
352:
351:Tetracyclines
348:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
328:M. genitalium
324:
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319:M. genitalium
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313:Treatment of
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68:
65:
61:Gram positive
60:
58:
56:
52:
29:
27:
19:
3413:Chemotherapy
3373:Cell biology
3274:Biochemistry
3198:Neuroscience
3146:Distribution
3076:Loading dose
2759:Superagonist
2716:Pharmacology
2626:Pharmacology
2451:
2436:
2379:
2375:
2365:
2341:(1): 12–26.
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2027:
2017:
1985:(3): 514–7.
1982:
1978:
1922:
1918:
1870:
1866:
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1852:
1843:
1834:
1801:
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1727:
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1674:
1666:
1654:. Retrieved
1626:
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1530:
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1461:
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1416:
1412:
1402:
1369:
1365:
1341:. Retrieved
1310:
1303:
1270:
1266:
1259:
1232:
1229:N Engl J Med
1228:
1217:
1190:
1186:
1180:
1172:
1140:(8): 680–4.
1137:
1133:
1123:
1090:
1086:
1080:
1050:(1): 44–50.
1047:
1043:
1037:
1026:. Retrieved
1021:
1012:
1001:. Retrieved
997:
953:(8): 672–5.
950:
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628:
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621:
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593:
588:
579:
558:
557:
546:
539:
536:azithromycin
525:
524:
519:
492:otitis media
479:
472:
470:
457:
453:
447:
446:
441:
435:erythromycin
431:tetracycline
422:
409:
381:
380:
369:
358:
353:, including
343:
340:Moxifloxacin
327:
323:Azithromycin
318:
314:
312:
295:
288:
287:
282:
275:
261:
259:
249:
234:streptomycin
230:
222:Tuberculosis
220:
209:
202:Enterococcus
200:
192:Enterococcus
191:
185:Enterococcus
183:
169:
163:
161:
157:Enterococcus
156:
146:C. difficile
145:
142:C. difficile
141:
134:C. difficile
133:
131:
127:C. difficile
126:
124:
104:C. difficile
103:
102:
98:C. difficile
97:
94:C. difficile
93:
91:
87:C. difficile
86:
83:C. difficile
82:
73:
71:
66:
50:
48:
28:
26:
3498:Bactericide
3174:Compartment
2985:Patch clamp
2961:Schild plot
2652:Agriculture
2446:‹ The
2093:(1): 40–5.
1863:infections"
1537:(1): 43–9.
1507:: e61–e65.
1464:(1): 5–15.
1458:Respiration
1419:(1): 6–24.
1413:Immunol Rev
998:www.cdc.gov
752:Afghanistan
671:Epigenetics
504:peritonitis
458:S. pyogenes
400:Methicillin
355:doxycycline
199:-resistant
182:-resistant
140:-resistant
138:Clindamycin
120:clindamycin
116:carbapenems
3551:Categories
3378:Physiology
3310:Toxicology
3202:psychology
3151:Metabolism
3141:Absorption
3135:Liberation
2977:Organ bath
2905:Functional
2784:Antagonist
2777:Inhibitory
2732:Excitatory
2543:Antifungal
1919:The Lancet
1343:2013-09-26
1028:2016-05-05
1003:2016-05-05
825:References
791:mexAB-oprM
683:polymyxins
636:Salmonella
618:Salmonella
611:Carbapenem
496:meningitis
488:bacteremia
466:penicillin
396:penicillin
392:human skin
304:urethritis
180:penicillin
79:nosocomial
3160:Clearance
3156:Excretion
2975:Methods (
2579:multidrug
2548:Antiviral
2484:, at the
2268:182042290
2196:(1): 52.
1939:0140-6736
1826:205521926
1656:6 October
1486:202645306
1295:205988392
871:0036-8075
689:known as
565:gonorrhea
508:arthritis
500:sinusitis
484:pneumonia
462:macrolide
452:(Group A
423:S. aureus
404:oxacillin
336:josamycin
268:isoniazid
242:isoniazid
197:linezolid
3541:Medicine
3278:genetics
3250:Pharmacy
3237:Medicine
3047:Affinity
3006:Efficacy
2944:Analysis
2926:Toxicity
2562:Concepts
2448:template
2414:22096200
2357:14706082
2299:15549020
2230:18282299
2166:20805405
2117:21119555
2068:24905728
2028:PLOS ONE
2009:15109426
1957:35065702
1889:27505296
1818:28072403
1774:23593483
1734:PLOS ONE
1711:21346049
1643:28438948
1600:19451293
1531:Tubercle
1443:25703549
1394:24995375
1386:19283912
1320:24649502
1287:18947320
1251:16322602
1209:10572152
1164:16156323
1115:23822514
1107:17072575
1072:39290661
1064:18171186
969:16156321
889:27609891
813:See also
807:biofilms
390:and the
272:rifampin
246:rifampin
3529:Biology
3515:Portals
3188:Related
3131:(L)ADME
3085:Initial
3069:Metrics
3016:Potency
2999:Metrics
2901:Binding
2871:Binding
2739:Agonist
2522:Use of
2450:below (
2405:4046891
2384:Bibcode
2376:Science
2221:2262874
2198:Bibcode
2157:2937522
2108:3075864
2059:4048246
2036:Bibcode
2000:3322805
1948:8841637
1765:3620223
1742:Bibcode
1702:3122813
1651:9178150
1591:2715638
1551:2115217
1478:9523361
1434:4339235
1155:5612438
924:7594392
880:5534434
851:Bibcode
843:Science
754:during
750:and in
687:plasmid
679:histone
666:E. coli
662:E. coli
653:E. coli
645:E. coli
622:E. coli
417:in the
300:urethra
3190:fields
2467:Curlie
2453:Curlie
2412:
2402:
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2252:Nature
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869:
744:Kuwait
433:, and
415:sepsis
226:MDR TB
195:, and
118:, and
3387:Other
3124:LADME
2531:Types
2264:S2CID
1822:S2CID
1647:S2CID
1482:S2CID
1390:S2CID
1291:S2CID
1111:S2CID
1068:S2CID
795:mexXY
691:MCR-1
77:is a
3276:and
3200:and
3036:TD50
3032:LD50
3028:ED50
3024:IC50
3020:EC50
2822:Drug
2410:PMID
2353:PMID
2295:PMID
2226:PMID
2162:PMID
2113:PMID
2064:PMID
2005:PMID
1953:PMID
1935:ISSN
1885:PMID
1814:PMID
1770:PMID
1707:PMID
1658:2017
1639:PMID
1596:PMID
1547:PMID
1474:PMID
1439:PMID
1382:PMID
1316:PMID
1283:PMID
1247:PMID
1205:PMID
1160:PMID
1103:PMID
1060:PMID
965:PMID
920:PMID
885:PMID
867:ISSN
740:Iraq
677:and
633:and
620:and
534:and
506:and
347:SNPs
344:parC
332:SNPs
244:and
168:and
3133:: (
2465:at
2400:PMC
2392:doi
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2095:doi
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2044:doi
1995:PMC
1987:doi
1943:PMC
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