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the non-uniform transversal compressive action of the rolls and the uneven geometrical properties of the entry material. The transverse distribution of differential strain/elongation-induced stress with respect to the material's average applied stress is commonly referenced to as shape. Due to the strict relationship between shape and flatness, these terms can be used in an interchangeable manner. In the case of metal strips and sheets, the flatness reflects the differential fiber elongation across the width of the workpiece. This property must be subject to an accurate feedback-based control in order to guarantee the machinability of the metal sheets in the final transformation processes. Some technological details about the feedback control of flatness are given in.
585:
and geometry. Starting from a given billet, different sequences can be adopted to produce a certain final product. However, since each rolling mill is significantly expensive (up to 2 million euros), a typical requirement is to reduce the number of rolling passes. Different approaches have been achieved, including empirical knowledge, employment of numerical models, and
Artificial Intelligence techniques. Lambiase et al. validated a finite element model (FE) for predicting the final shape of a rolled bar in round-flat pass. One of the major concerns when designing rolling mills is to reduce the number of passes. A possible solution to such requirements is the
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opposite to each other. The effect is that the rolls will have a gap between them that is parabolic in shape, and will vary with lateral shift, thus allowing for control of the crown of the rolls dynamically. Pair cross rolling involves using either flat or parabolically crowned rolls, but shifting the ends at an angle so that the gap between the edges of the rolls will increase or decrease, thus allowing for dynamic crown control. Work roll bending involves using hydraulic cylinders at the ends of the rolls to counteract roll deflection.
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323:, England. In 1783, a patent number was issued to Henry Cort for his use of grooved rolls for rolling iron bars. With this new design, mills were able to produce 15 times more output per day than with a hammer. Although Cort was not the first to use grooved rolls, he was the first to combine the use of many of the best features of various ironmaking and shaping processes known at the time. Thus modern writers have called him "father of modern rolling".
460:
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819:, which presses the ring from the outside. As the rolling occurs the wall thickness decreases as the diameter increases. The rolls may be shaped to form various cross-sectional shapes. The resulting grain structure is circumferential, which gives better mechanical properties. Diameters can be as large as 8 m (26 ft) and face heights as tall as 2 m (79 in). Common applications include railway tyres,
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635:. Commonly cold-rolled products include sheets, strips, bars, and rods; these products are usually smaller than the same products that are hot rolled. Because of the smaller size of the workpieces and their greater strength, as compared to hot rolled stock, four-high or cluster mills are used. Cold rolling cannot reduce the thickness of a workpiece as much as hot rolling in a single pass.
593:, which divides an incoming bar in two or more subparts, thus virtually increasing the cross section reduction ratio per pass as reported by Lambiase. Another solution for reducing the number of passes in rolling mills is the employment of automated systems for Roll Pass Design as that proposed by Lambiase and Langella. subsequently, Lambiase further developed an Automated System based on
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913:. In order to achieve this the entire process must be closely monitored and controlled. Common variables in controlled rolling include the starting material composition and structure, deformation levels, temperatures at various stages, and cool-down conditions. The benefits of controlled rolling include better mechanical properties and energy savings.
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885:. The heat which brings the workpiece above the recrystallization temperature is also used to perform the heat treatments so that any subsequent heat treating is unnecessary. Types of heat treatments include the production of a fine grain structure; controlling the nature, size, and distribution of various transformation products (such as
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1079:. These backup rolls are larger and contact the back side of the smaller rolls. A four-high mill has four rolls, two small and two large. A cluster mill has more than four rolls, usually in three tiers. These types of mills are commonly used to hot roll wide plates, most cold rolling applications, and to roll foils.
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In a flat metal workpiece, the flatness is a descriptive attribute characterizing the extent of the geometric deviation from a reference plane. The deviation from complete flatness is the direct result of the workpiece relaxation after hot or cold rolling, due to the internal stress pattern caused by
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If a Mill Stand is fitted with
Hydraulic Pistons in series with, or instead of the electrically driven Mechanical Screws, then it is possible to eliminate the effect of that Stands Back-up Roll eccentricity. While rolling, the eccentricity of each Back-up Roll is determined by sampling the roll force
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Basically any forgeable metal can also be forge-rolled. Forge rolling is mainly used to preform long-scaled billets through targeted mass distribution for parts such as crankshafts, connection rods, steering knuckles and vehicle axles. Narrowest manufacturing tolerances can only partially be achieved
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Roll forming, roll bending or plate rolling is a continuous bending operation in which a long strip of metal (typically coiled steel) is passed through consecutive sets of rolls, or stands, each performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired cross-section profile is obtained. Roll
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One could have a flatness defect even with the workpiece having the same thickness across the width. Also, one could have fairly high crown or wedge, but still produce material that is flat. In order to produce flat material, the material must be reduced by the same percentage across the width. This
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from 1986 until that Cold Mill ceased production in 2009. Within each coil, the exit thickness deviation times 10 for every meter of strip was stored in a file. This file was analyzed separately for each frequency/wavelength from 5 m to 60 m in steps of 0.1 m. To improve the accuracy,
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Forge rolling is a longitudinal rolling process to reduce the cross-sectional area of heated bars or billets by leading them between two contrary rotating roll segments. The process is mainly used to provide optimized material distribution for subsequent die forging processes. Owing to this a better
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are often divided into roughing, intermediate and finishing rolling cages. During shape rolling, an initial billet (round or square) with edge of diameter typically ranging between 100 and 140 mm is continuously deformed to produce a certain finished product with smaller cross section dimension
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A patent was granted to Thomas
Blockley of England in 1759 for the polishing and rolling of metals. Another patent was granted in 1766 to Richard Ford of England for the first tandem mill. A tandem mill is one in which the metal is rolled in successive stands; Ford's tandem mill was for hot rolling
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Maintaining a uniform gap between the rolls is difficult because the rolls deflect under the load required to deform the workpiece. The deflection causes the workpiece to be thinner on the edges and thicker in the middle. This can be overcome by using a crowned roller (parabolic crown), however the
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In hot rolling, if the temperature of the workpiece is not uniform the flow of the material will occur more in the warmer parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature difference is great enough cracking and tearing can occur. The cooler sections are, among other things, a result of the supports
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mill was invented, which uses three rolls that rotate in one direction; the metal is fed through two of the rolls and then returned through the other pair. The disadvantage to this system is the workpiece must be lifted and lowered using an elevator. All of these mills are usually used for primary
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from forming in later processing). It locks dislocations at the surface and thereby reduces the possibility of formation of Lüders bands. To avoid the formation of Lüders bands it is necessary to create substantial density of unpinned dislocations in ferrite matrix. It is also used to break up the
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Other methods of compensating for roll deformation include continual varying crown (CVC), pair cross rolling, and work roll bending. CVC was developed by SMS-Siemag AG and involves grinding a third order polynomial curve into the work rolls and then shifting the work rolls laterally, equally, and
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Slabs are the feed material for hot strip mills or plate mills and blooms are rolled to billets in a billet mill or large sections in a structural mill. The output from a strip mill is coiled and, subsequently, used as the feed for a cold rolling mill or used directly by fabricators. Billets, for
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Quarter buckle - This is a rare defect where the fibers are elongated in the quarter regions (the portion of the strip between the center and the edge). This is normally attributed to using excessive roll bending force since the bending force may not compensate for the roll deflection across the
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A continuous mill has a looping tower which allows the mill to continue rolling slowly the strip in the tower, while a strip welder joins the tail of the current coil to the head of the next coil. At the exit end of the mill there is normally a flying shear (to cut the strip at or near the weld)
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at the interface between the material and the rolls causes the material to be pushed through. The amount of deformation possible in a single pass is limited by the friction between the rolls; if the change in thickness is too great the rolls just slip over the material and do not draw it in. The
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Profile is made up of the measurements of crown and wedge. Crown is the thickness in the center as compared to the average thickness at the edges of the workpiece. Wedge is a measure of the thickness at one edge as opposed to the other edge. Both may be expressed as absolute measurements or as
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Other shapes can be cold-rolled if the cross-section is relatively uniform and the transverse dimension is relatively small. Cold rolling shapes requires a series of shaping operations, usually along the lines of sizing, breakdown, roughing, semi-roughing, semi-finishing, and finishing.
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Many surface defects can be scarfed off the surface of semi-finished rolled products before further rolling. Methods of scarfing have included hand-chipping with chisels (18th and 19th centuries); powered chipping and grinding with air chisels and grinders; burning with an
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is important because mass flow of the material must be preserved, and the more a material is reduced, the more it is elongated. If a material is elongated in the same manner across the width, then the flatness coming into the mill will be preserved at the exit of the mill.
338:, England, in 1820, where he produced fish-bellied wrought iron rails in lengths of 15 to 18 feet. With the advancement of technology in rolling mills, the size of rolling mills grew rapidly along with the size of the products being rolled. One example of this was at
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will impart some directionality and workpieces less than 20 mm (0.79 in) thick often have some directional properties. Non-uniform cooling will induce a lot of residual stresses, which usually occurs in shapes that have a non-uniform cross-section, such as
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is defined above the recrystallization temperature; this is usually 50 to 100 °C (122 to 212 °F) above the recrystallization temperature. If the temperature does drop below this temperature the material must be re-heated prior to additional hot rolling.
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forming is ideal for producing parts with long lengths or in large quantities. There are three main processes: 4 rollers, 3 rollers and 2 rollers, each of which has as different advantages according to the desired specifications of the output plate.
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The Back-up Roll eccentricity can be up to 100 μm in magnitude per stack. The eccentricity can be measured off-line by plotting the force variation against time with the Mill on creep, no strip present, and the Mill Stand below face.
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Often the rolls are heated to assist in the workability of the metal. Lubrication is often used to keep the workpiece from sticking to the rolls. To fine-tune the process, the speed of the rolls and the temperature of the rollers are adjusted.
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mill is used. A small roll diameter is advantageous because less roll is in contact with the material, which results in a lower force and power requirement. The problem with a small roll is a reduction of stiffness, which is overcome using
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care was taken to use a full multiple of each wavelength (100*). The calculate amplitudes were plotted against the wavelength, so that the spikes could be compared to the expected wavelengths created by the Backup Rolls of each Stand.
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in 1590. These passed flat bars between rolls to form a plate of iron, which was then passed between grooved rolls (slitters) to produce rods of iron. The first experiments at rolling iron for tinplate took place about 1670. In 1697,
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relative measurements. For instance, one could have 2 mil of crown (the center of the workpiece is 2 mil thicker than the edges), or one could have 2% crown (the center of the workpiece is 2% thicker than the edges).
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operation, the products are usually fed directly into the rolling mills at the proper temperature. In smaller operations, the material starts at room temperature and must be heated. This is done in a gas- or oil-fired
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When cold rolling, virtually all of the strip thickness variation is the result of the eccentricity and out-of-roundness of the Back-up Rolls from about Stand 3 of the Hot Strip Mill through to the
Finished Product.
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of 1761, where he mentions rolling mills for both plate and bar iron. He also explains how rolling mills can save on time and labor because a rolling mill can produce 10 to 20 or more bars at the same time.
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re-rolling, are subsequently rolled in either a merchant, bar or rod mill. Merchant or bar mills produce a variety of shaped products such as angles, channels, beams, rounds (long or coiled) and hexagons.
654:. Full-hard rolling reduces the thickness by 50%, while the others involve less of a reduction. Cold rolled steel is then annealed to induce ductility in the cold rolled steel which is simply known as a
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is the most commonly produced product via pack rolling. This is evident from the two different surface finishes; the shiny side is on the roll side and the dull side is against the other sheet of foil.
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mill has rolls that can rotate in both directions, but the disadvantage is that the rolls must be stopped, reversed, and then brought back up to rolling speed between each pass. To resolve this, the
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The earliest rolling mills in crude form but the same basic principles were found in Middle East and South Asia as early as 600 BCE. The invention of the rolling mill in Europe may be attributed to
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is used, which rolls multiple sheets together to increase the effective starting thickness. As the foil sheets come through the rollers, they are trimmed and slitted with circular or razor-like
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and assigning it to the corresponding portion of each Back-up Roll's rotational position. These recordings are then used to operate the
Hydraulic Piston so as to neutralize the eccentricities.
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A tandem mill is a special type of modern rolling mill where rolling is done in one pass. In a traditional rolling mill rolling is done in several passes, but in tandem mill there are several
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If processed by a blacksmith, the smoother, more consistent, and lower levels of carbon encapsulated in the steel makes it easier to process, but at the cost of being more expensive.
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engine was coupled to a slitting and rolling mill. The use of steam engines considerably enhanced the production capabilities of the mills, until this form of power was displaced by
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final product is either sheet or plate, with the former being less than 6 mm (0.24 in) thick and the latter greater than; however, heavy plates tend to be formed using a
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It is typically desirable to have some crown in the workpiece as this will cause the workpiece to tend to pull to the center of the mill, and thus will run with higher stability.
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1111:, three-high, rolls from 24 to 32 inches in diameter, used for the further reduction of blooms down to 1.5x1.5-inch billets, being the nubpreparatory mills for the
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The slitting mill was adapted to producing hoops (for barrels) and iron with a half-round or other sections by means that were the subject of two patents of c. 1679.
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Mill protection devices – to ensure that forces applied to the backup roll chocks are not of such a magnitude to fracture the roll necks or damage the mill housing
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This type of defect occurs when a corner or fin is folded over and rolled but not welded into the metal. They appear as seams across the surface of the metal.
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Universal mills for the production of square-edged or so-called universal plates and various wide flanged shapes by a system of vertical and horizontal rolls.
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Flat rolling is the most basic form of rolling with the starting and ending material having a rectangular cross-section. The material is fed in between two
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Symmetrical edge wave - the edges on both sides of the workpiece are "wavy" due to the material at the edges being longer than the material in the center.
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Another way to overcome deflection issues is by decreasing the load on the rolls, which can be done by applying a longitudinal force; this is essentially
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They are open, broken lines that run along the length of the metal and caused by the presence of scale as well as due to pass roughness of
Roughing mill.
1105:, shapes or plates, respectively. If reversing, they are from 34 to 48 inches in diameter, and if three-high, from 28 to 42 inches in diameter.
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seems to have a wider tolerance for the level of included carbon than does cold-rolled steel, and is, therefore, more difficult for a blacksmith to use.
91:. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, and cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all
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Roll changing devices – use of an overhead crane and a unit designed to attach to the neck of the roll to be removed from or inserted into the mill.
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Capece
Minutolo, F.; Durante, M.; Lambiase, F.; Langella, A. (2005). "Dimensional Analysis in Steel Rod Rolling for Different Types of Grooves".
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Minutolo, F.; Durante, M.; Lambiase, F.; Langella, A. (2006). "Dimensional analysis of a new type of groove for steel rebar rolling".
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Pin, G; Francesconi, V; Cuzzola, FA; Parisini, T (2012). "Adaptive task-space metal strip-flatness control in cold multi-roll mill stands".
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Small merchant bar mills with finishing rolls from 8 to 16 inches in diameter, generally arranged with a larger size roughing stand.
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is used. As the material is worked, the temperature must be monitored to make sure it remains above the recrystallization temperature.
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crowned roller will only compensate for one set of conditions, specifically the material, temperature, and amount of deformation.
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Shape mills with rolls from 20 to 26 inches in diameter, for smaller sizes of beams and channels and other structural shapes.
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Rolling balance system – to ensure that the upper work and back up rolls are maintained in proper position relative to lower rolls
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Rolling mills for lead seem to have existed by the late 17th century. Copper and brass were also rolled by the late 18th century.
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to reduce the thickness, to make the thickness uniform, and/or to impart a desired mechanical property. The concept is similar to
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356:. Further evolution of the rolling mill came with the introduction of three-high mills in 1853 used for rolling heavy sections.
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in galvanized steel. Skin-rolled stock is usually used in subsequent cold-working processes where good ductility is required.
662:, involves the least amount of reduction: 0.5–1%. It is used to produce a smooth surface, a uniform thickness, and reduce the
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Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization temperature (usually at room temperature), which increases the
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This is the case when the frictional force on the metal from inlet contact matches the negative force from the exit contact.
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Backup rolls – are intended to provide rigid support required by the working rolls to prevent bending under the rolling load
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the diameter of a ring. The starting material is a thick-walled ring. This workpiece is placed between two rolls, an inner
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Center buckle - The center of the strip is "wavy" due to the strip in the center being longer than the strip at the edges.
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material utilization, lower process forces and better surface quality of parts can be achieved in die forging processes.
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79:. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its
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Pinions – gears to divide power between the two spindles, rotating them at the same speed but in different directions
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by forge rolling. This is the main reason why forge rolling is rarely used for finishing, but mainly for preforming.
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The
Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present
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mills with finishing rolls from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, always arranged with larger size roughing stands.
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Various rolling configurations. Key: A. 2-high B. 3-high C. 4-high D. 6-high E. 12-high cluster & F. 20-high
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Lambiase, F. (2013). "Optimization of shape rolling sequences by integrated artificial intelligent techniques".
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process, which reveals a smooth surface. Dimensional tolerances are usually 2 to 5% of the overall dimension.
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Asymmetrical edge wave - one edge is "wavy" due to the material at one side being longer than the other side.
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Hot-rolled metals generally have little directionality in their mechanical properties or deformation-induced
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improved mechanical properties due to optimized grain flow compared to exclusively die forged workpieces
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Cross-sections of continuously rolled structural shapes, showing the change induced by each rolling mill
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For thin sheet metal with a thickness less than 200 μm (0.0079 in), the rolling is done in a
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87:. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is known as
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trained by a parametric Finite element model and to optimize and automatically design rolling mills.
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786:. Trimming refers to the edges of the foil, while slitting involves cutting it into several sheets.
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of the material. After the grains deform during processing, they recrystallize, which maintains an
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The difference between the thickness of initial and rolled metal piece is called
Draught. Thus if
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Beam mills, three-high, rolls from 28 to 36 inches in diameter, for the production of heavy
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torch, whose gas pressure blows away the metal or slag melted by the flame; and laser scarfing.
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because the small thickness requires a small diameter rolls. To reduce the need for small rolls
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Armour plate mills with rolls from 44 to 50 inches in diameter and 140 to 180-inch body.
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Some of the earliest literature on rolling mills can be traced back to the Swedish engineer
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These are long patches of loose metal that have been rolled into the surface of the metal.
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206:. The earlier production of plate iron in Europe had been in forges, not rolling mills.
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followed by two coilers; one being unloaded while the other winds on the current coil.
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30:"Rolling mill" redirects here. For mills that use rollers to crush grain or stone, see
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Final Report Summary - DEVAPRO (Development of a variable warm forging process chain).
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feet wide, and 7/16 of an inch thick, and weighing 1,125 pounds, was exhibited by the
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Mills are designed in different types of configurations, with the most basic being a
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ASM International: ASM Handbook Metalworking: bulk forming. ASM International, 2005
1691:. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 91.
1593:, whose name has been given to revolutionary methods of processing steel and metals
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rolling and the roll diameters range from 60 to 140 cm (24 to 55 in).
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Lambiase, F.; Langella, A. (2009). "Automated Procedure for Roll Pass Design".
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Lambiase, F. (2014). "Prediction of geometrical profile in slit rolling pass".
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Cold rolling mills may be further divided into continuous or batch processing.
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Roll bending produces a cylindrical shaped product from plate or steel metals.
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and particularly an integrated system including an inferential engine based on
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Until well into the eighteenth century, rolling mills derived their power from
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1752:(Metals Society, London 1983), 31-36; English patents, nos. 1351 and 1420.
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Electrical controls – constant and variable voltages applied to the motors
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752:. The decrease in material thickness causes the material to elongate. The
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Rolling mill for cold rolling metal sheet like this piece of brass sheet
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Modern rolling practice can be attributed to the pioneering efforts of
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Drive motors – rolling narrow foil product to thousands of horsepower
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1305:. Other method of decreasing roll deflection include increasing the
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Merchant bar mills with rolls from 16 to 20 inches in diameter.
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Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci"
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Forge Rolling. In: CIRP Encyclopedia of Production Engineering.
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The maximum draught that can be achieved via rollers of radius
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of the roll material and adding back-up supports to the rolls.
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Hoop and cotton tie mills, similar to small merchant bar mills.
409:. The starting material is usually large pieces of metal, like
2017:
1984:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
1906:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
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Tandem mills can be either of hot or cold rolling mill types.
232:
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Plate mills with rolls from 28 to 44 inches in diameter.
1581:, invented and patented the process for cold rolling of iron
1124:
Rail mills with rolls from 26 to 40 inches in diameter.
1090:
Historically mills were classified by the product produced:
1023:
Coilers and uncoilers – to unroll and roll up coils of metal
2364:
Handbuch Umformtechnik: Grundlagen, Technologien, Maschinen
547:
that forms at high temperatures. It is usually removed via
2465:, 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2003.
1086:
This sketch shows the components of a four-high Mill Stand
638:
Cold-rolled sheets and strips come in various conditions:
2302:
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),
1312:
The different classifications for flatness defects are:
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mills with rolls from 20 to 32 inches in diameter.
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Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling that
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1198:
Looping towers are also used in other places; such as
2047:
Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K.; Alting, Leo (1994),
1466:
1457:
between the roller and the metal surface is given by
1406:
1372:
1345:
502:
Soaking pits used to heat steel ingots before rolling
202:. Later this began to be rerolled and tinned to make
134:
There are many types of rolling processes, including
2740:
2704:
2603:
2577:
2463:
Materials Science and Engineering - an Introduction
2106:
2078:"Aluminum Foil Questions and Answers - eNotes.com"
1821:
1802:
1787:
1648:
1633:
1495:
1438:
1385:
1358:
1101:, being the preparatory mills to rolling finished
2366:(in German), 2nd Edition, Springer Verlag, 2010,
1762:
1760:
1758:
342:in London in 1851, where a plate 20 feet long, 3
99:holding pairs of rolls are grouped together into
1941:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
1836:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
1713:History of the Manufacturers of Iron in All Ages
1472:
1235:Hydraulic piston correcting out-of-round BU Roll
936:good surface quality of forge-rolled workpieces
933:high productivity and high material utilization
491:for larger workpieces; for smaller workpieces,
326:The first rail rolling mill was established by
2429:History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages
2384:Ginzburg, Vladimir B.; Ballas, Robert (2000),
2548:
2510:
2450:, 3rd Edition, PWS publishing, Boston, 1991.
2248:Pohanish, Richard P.; Pohanish, Dick (2003),
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1798:
1796:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1775:
177:in his drawings. Earliest rolling mills were
127:have rolling mill divisions that convert the
71:stock is passed through one or more pairs of
8:
1644:
1642:
1629:
1627:
1014:Gearing – to establish desired rolling speed
881:which integrates controlled deformation and
2053:, Industrial Press Inc., pp. 300–304,
2555:
2541:
2533:
2517:
2503:
2495:
1879:Journal of Materials Processing Technology
1527:These defects occur as a feather-like lap.
103:that can quickly process metal, typically
83:temperature, then the process is known as
2072:
2070:
1484:
1471:
1465:
1430:
1417:
1405:
1377:
1371:
1350:
1344:
1247:was employed by the 5 Stand Cold Mill at
284:directly driving a mill is attributed to
181:, which were introduced from what is now
2304:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
1514:There are six types of surface defects:
1284:
2286:
2163:
2050:Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide
1766:
1736:
1724:
1715:, Published by Burt Franklin 1892, p.91
1623:
431:
565:Hot rolling is used mainly to produce
1393:is final thickness, then the draught
1121:and channels 12 inches and over.
7:
2182:, Penton Publishing, pp. 13–19.
1453:with coefficient of static friction
1008:Roll cooling and lubrication systems
2088:from the original on 10 August 2011
288:'s Bradley Works where, in 1786, a
2028:from the original on 29 April 2018
1603:Drawer slides roll forming machine
929:Characteristics of forge rolling:
569:or simple cross-sections, such as
25:
2479:(IJSRD/Vol 5/Issue 07/2017/270).
2475:Suhel khan pathan, IJSRDV5I70206
2432:(2nd ed.), Ayer Publishing,
2268:from the original on 21 July 2011
2222:Definition of standard mill terms
2018:"Hot Rolled vs Cold Rolled Steel"
601:a knowledge database based on an
2107:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1891:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.04.042
1822:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1803:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1788:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1649:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1634:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1496:{\displaystyle d_{\max }=f^{2}R}
1064:To minimize the roll diameter a
658:. Skin-rolling, also known as a
627:up to 20%. It also improves the
530:. However, in certain instances
470:
458:
446:
434:
236:
1204:continuous electrolytic tinning
115:, angle stock, channel stock),
2477:"Three Roller Rolling Machine"
2448:Physical Metallurgy Principles
2251:Glossary of Metalworking Terms
2207:10.1016/j.jprocont.2012.08.008
1219:Thickness changes along length
942:small tools and low tool costs
656:Cold Rolled and Close Annealed
482:If these products came from a
411:semi-finished casting products
394:process that occurs above the
280:. The first recorded use of a
129:semi-finished casting products
1:
1439:{\displaystyle d=t_{i}-t_{f}}
441:Ingot lifted from soaking pit
396:recrystallization temperature
198:to roll "Pontypool plates" –
2342:Roberts, William L. (1983),
2321:Roberts, William L. (1978),
1748:R. A. Mott (ed. P. Singer),
1662:"Museo di Leonardo da Vinci"
1249:Bluescope Steel, Port Kembla
1208:continuous galvanising lines
405:and prevents the metal from
315:of Funtley Iron Mills, near
2461:Callister Jr., William D.,
2362:Doege, E.; Behrens, B.-A.:
1750:Henry Cort: the great finer
1555:Prominent surface ruptures.
879:thermomechanical processing
803:A schematic of ring rolling
2884:
2446:Reed-Hill, Robert, et al.
2195:Journal of Process Control
1687:Landes, David. S. (1969).
1560:Surface defect remediation
1326:entire length of the roll.
1200:continuous annealing lines
1174:
953:
862:
724:
702:
666:phenomenon (by preventing
612:
553:smooth clean surface (SCS)
522:A coil of hot-rolled steel
465:Steel blooms on rail wagon
383:
370:
29:
2797:
2532:
2387:Flat Rolling Fundamentals
2179:The Rolling Mill Industry
1996:10.1007/s00170-013-4742-2
1961:10.1007/s11665-008-9289-2
1918:10.1007/s00170-013-5584-7
1366:is initial thickness and
603:Artificial Neural Network
2626:Electrohydraulic forming
2426:Swank, James M. (1965),
1224:in the re-heat furnace.
865:Structural shape rolling
851:Structural shape rolling
131:into finished products.
107:, into products such as
2631:Electromagnetic forming
2405:Lee, Youngseog (2004),
2306:(9th ed.), Wiley,
1597:Electron beam texturing
1171:Sketch of looping tower
939:extended tool life-time
909:; and, controlling the
907:precipitation hardening
765:, rather than rolling.
595:Artificial Intelligence
532:non-metallic inclusions
368:Hot rolled steel price
2616:Casting (metalworking)
1856:10.1361/01599490523913
1497:
1440:
1387:
1360:
1290:
1236:
1172:
1087:
1050:two-high non-reversing
1045:
989:
981:
860:
804:
722:
700:
523:
503:
376:
373:2020s commodities boom
308:
218:Patriotista Testamente
170:
52:
44:
43:Rolling schematic view
2837:Tools and terminology
2324:Cold Rolling of Steel
2176:Kindl, F. H. (1913),
1739:, pp. 2 & 26
1537:is rolled into metal.
1498:
1441:
1388:
1386:{\displaystyle t_{f}}
1361:
1359:{\displaystyle t_{i}}
1288:
1234:
1170:
1085:
1039:
987:
979:
954:For the factory, see
858:
802:
720:
698:
521:
512:finishing temperature
501:
477:Billets on rail wagon
367:
302:
165:
51:Rolling visualization
50:
42:
27:Metal forming process
2666:Progressive stamping
2345:Hot Rolling of Steel
2254:, Industrial Press,
2127:7 April 2014 at the
1510:Surface defect types
1464:
1404:
1370:
1343:
905:in steel); inducing
577:Shape rolling design
360:Hot and cold rolling
354:Consett Iron Company
340:The Great Exhibition
332:Bedlington Ironworks
77:the rolling of dough
2742:Finishing processes
2408:Rod and bar rolling
1953:2009JMEP...18..263L
1848:2005JMEP...14..373C
1177:Tandem rolling mill
453:Photo of cold slabs
2289:, pp. 158–162
2229:on 10 January 2010
1912:(5–8): 1285–1293.
1493:
1436:
1383:
1356:
1291:
1260:Flatness and shape
1237:
1173:
1088:
1054:two-high reversing
1046:
990:
982:
965:, also known as a
875:Controlled rolling
870:Controlled rolling
861:
805:
761:, which is termed
723:
701:
631:and holds tighter
599:Genetic Algorithms
524:
504:
484:continuous casting
377:
309:
248:. You can help by
214:Christopher Polhem
194:erected a mill at
192:Major John Hanbury
171:
152:controlled rolling
53:
45:
2850:
2849:
2793:
2792:
2705:Joining processes
2636:Explosive forming
2604:Forming processes
2456:978-0-534-92173-6
2439:978-0-8337-3463-1
2418:978-0-8247-5649-9
2397:978-0-8247-8894-0
2372:978-3-642-04248-5
2355:978-0-8247-1345-4
2348:, Marcel Dekker,
2334:978-0-8247-6780-8
2327:, Marcel Dekker,
2313:978-0-471-65653-1
2131:2 September 2015.
2060:978-0-8311-3049-7
1698:978-0-521-09418-4
1668:on 5 October 2013
1591:Tadeusz Sendzimir
1533:This occurs when
615:Cold-formed steel
528:residual stresses
493:induction heating
390:Hot rolling is a
303:Properzi roller,
296:soon after 1900.
266:
265:
175:Leonardo da Vinci
81:recrystallization
67:process in which
16:(Redirected from
2875:
2572:
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2290:
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2234:
2225:, archived from
2217:
2211:
2210:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2152:
2146:
2140:Behrens, B.-A.:
2138:
2132:
2118:Behrens, B.-A.:
2116:
2110:
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2014:
2008:
2007:
1990:(1–4): 443–452.
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1716:
1711:Swank, James M.,
1709:
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1684:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1664:. Archived from
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1354:
1245:Fourier analysis
845:pressure vessels
625:strain hardening
474:
462:
450:
438:
351:
350:
346:
290:Boulton and Watt
261:
258:
240:
233:
109:structural steel
21:
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2661:Press hardening
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2571:, and finishing
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2378:Further reading
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2135:
2129:Wayback Machine
2117:
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1530:Rolled-in scale
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1413:
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1337:
1307:elastic modulus
1289:Roll deflection
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1165:
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344:
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328:John Birkenshaw
294:electric motors
274:
262:
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253:
246:needs expansion
231:
160:
148:profile rolling
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Profile rolling
15:
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11:
5:
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2765:Mass finishing
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2491:External links
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2212:
2201:(2): 108–119.
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2111:
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2009:
1974:
1947:(3): 263–272.
1931:
1896:
1885:(1–3): 69–76.
1869:
1842:(3): 373–377.
1826:
1824:, p. 388.
1807:
1805:, p. 387.
1792:
1790:, p. 385.
1771:
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1651:, p. 408.
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1175:Main article:
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1128:
1125:
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1115:
1106:
1099:slabbing mills
1097:, cogging and
1042:Sendzimir Mill
1033:
1032:Configurations
1030:
1025:
1024:
1021:
1018:
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967:reduction mill
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863:Main article:
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725:Main article:
714:
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703:Main article:
692:
689:
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629:surface finish
610:
607:
589:, also called
578:
575:
543:, which is an
506:To maintain a
480:
479:
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457:
455:
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445:
443:
440:
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407:work hardening
403:microstructure
381:
378:
361:
358:
336:Northumberland
286:John Wilkinson
273:
272:Modern rolling
270:
264:
263:
243:
241:
230:
227:
225:of wire rods.
179:slitting mills
159:
158:Iron and steel
156:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2868:Metal forming
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2863:Rolling mills
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2760:Heat treating
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2471:0-471-13576-3
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2460:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2435:
2431:
2430:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2411:, CRC Press,
2410:
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2390:, CRC Press,
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2261:9780831131289
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2208:
2204:
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2196:
2189:
2186:
2181:
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2172:
2169:
2166:, p. 64.
2165:
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2137:
2134:
2130:
2126:
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2109:, p. 386
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2027:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1897:
1892:
1888:
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1873:
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1827:
1823:
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1799:
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1694:
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1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1585:John B. Tytus
1583:
1580:
1579:Bernard Lauth
1577:
1576:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1559:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1524:Mill-shearing
1523:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1509:
1507:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1468:
1460:
1459:
1458:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1378:
1374:
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1334:
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1318:
1315:
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1310:
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1304:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1268:
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1259:
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1250:
1246:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1178:
1169:
1162:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1084:
1080:
1078:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1043:
1038:
1031:
1029:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
991:
986:
980:Rolling mills
978:
974:
972:
968:
964:
957:
949:
944:
941:
938:
935:
932:
931:
930:
927:
923:
917:Forge rolling
916:
914:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
883:heat treating
880:
877:is a type of
876:
869:
866:
857:
850:
848:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
801:
794:
792:
789:
788:Aluminum foil
785:
781:
777:
776:
770:
766:
764:
760:
755:
751:
747:
746:working rolls
743:
735:
733:
728:
719:
712:
710:
706:
697:
690:
685:
683:
680:
676:
674:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
616:
608:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
582:Rolling mills
576:
574:
572:
568:
563:
561:
556:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
533:
529:
520:
516:
513:
509:
508:safety factor
500:
496:
494:
490:
485:
473:
468:
461:
456:
449:
444:
437:
432:
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
401:
397:
393:
387:
379:
374:
366:
359:
357:
355:
341:
337:
333:
329:
324:
322:
318:
314:
306:
301:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
271:
269:
260:
257:December 2009
251:
247:
244:This section
242:
239:
235:
234:
228:
226:
222:
219:
215:
210:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
188:
184:
180:
176:
168:
167:Slitting mill
164:
157:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
101:rolling mills
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
65:metal forming
62:
58:
49:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2696:Tube bending
2675:
2651:Hydroforming
2526:Metalworking
2476:
2462:
2447:
2428:
2407:
2386:
2363:
2344:
2323:
2303:
2296:Bibliography
2287:Roberts 1983
2282:
2270:, retrieved
2250:
2243:
2231:, retrieved
2227:the original
2221:
2215:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2178:
2171:
2164:Roberts 1978
2159:
2150:
2142:
2136:
2120:
2114:
2102:
2090:. Retrieved
2081:
2049:
2042:
2030:. Retrieved
2021:
2012:
1987:
1983:
1977:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1882:
1878:
1872:
1839:
1835:
1829:
1769:, p. 6.
1767:Roberts 1978
1749:
1744:
1737:Roberts 1983
1732:
1727:, p. 5.
1725:Roberts 1978
1720:
1712:
1707:
1688:
1682:
1670:. Retrieved
1666:the original
1656:
1563:
1513:
1505:
1448:
1397:is given by
1338:
1329:
1311:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1276:
1272:
1263:
1254:
1242:
1238:
1226:
1222:
1197:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1182:
1180:
1109:Billet mills
1089:
1077:backup rolls
1076:
1069:
1065:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1047:
1026:
970:
966:
963:rolling mill
962:
960:
928:
924:
920:
874:
873:
816:
812:
808:
806:
795:Ring rolling
780:pack rolling
779:
775:cluster mill
773:
771:
767:
762:
745:
741:
739:
736:Flat rolling
730:
727:Roll forming
721:Roll forming
713:Roll forming
708:
699:Roll bending
691:Roll bending
681:
677:
668:Lüders bands
659:
655:
651:
648:quarter-hard
647:
643:
639:
637:
618:
609:Cold rolling
590:
586:
580:
564:
557:
525:
511:
505:
481:
392:metalworking
389:
325:
310:
282:steam engine
278:water wheels
275:
267:
254:
250:adding to it
245:
229:Other metals
223:
217:
211:
208:
172:
151:
147:
144:roll forming
143:
140:roll bending
139:
136:ring rolling
135:
133:
100:
96:
93:cold working
89:cold rolling
88:
84:
72:
60:
57:metalworking
54:
36:
2807:Fabrication
2755:Galvanizing
2595:Sheet metal
2585:Fabrication
2569:fabrication
2272:12 December
1672:15 February
1613:Roll bender
1243:A modified
1163:Tandem mill
1113:bar and rod
817:driven roll
705:Roll bender
664:yield point
652:skin-rolled
571:rail tracks
567:sheet metal
558:Hot-rolled
489:soaking pit
386:Hot working
380:Hot rolling
125:steel mills
97:Roll stands
95:processes.
85:hot rolling
32:roller mill
2857:Categories
2827:Metallurgy
2770:Patination
2590:Piece work
1535:mill scale
1058:three-high
993:Work rolls
956:steel mill
903:martensite
813:idler roll
633:tolerances
613:See also:
591:split pass
560:mild steel
541:mill scale
413:, such as
384:See also:
371:See also:
313:Henry Cort
200:blackplate
2822:Machining
2817:Jewellery
2785:Polishing
2750:Anodizing
2727:Soldering
2641:Extrusion
2485:2321-0613
2022:spaco.org
2004:111150929
1969:110005903
1926:110784133
1864:136821434
1424:−
1066:four-high
911:toughness
891:austenite
837:airplanes
809:increases
744:, called
686:Processes
660:skin-pass
644:half-hard
640:full-hard
587:slit pass
321:Hampshire
196:Pontypool
117:bar stock
2832:Smithing
2722:Riveting
2717:Crimping
2686:Spinning
2671:Punching
2656:Stamping
2266:archived
2125:Archived
2092:29 April
2086:Archived
2032:29 April
2026:Archived
1608:Calender
1573:See also
1567:oxy-fuel
1281:Flatness
1136:Rod and
1095:Blooming
1044:cluster
895:pearlite
833:turbines
821:bearings
754:friction
673:spangles
621:strength
549:pickling
400:equiaxed
204:tinplate
2842:Welding
2812:Forming
2802:Casting
2780:Plating
2775:Peening
2732:Welding
2712:Brazing
2691:Swaging
2681:Sinking
2676:Rolling
2646:Forging
2621:Drawing
2611:Coining
2578:General
2565:Forming
2233:4 March
1949:Bibcode
1844:Bibcode
1552:Slivers
1335:Draught
1303:drawing
1269:Profile
1214:Defects
1071:cluster
899:bainite
887:ferrite
829:rockets
763:forging
742:rollers
551:or the
537:I-beams
427:billets
347:⁄
317:Fareham
307:, Milan
216:in his
187:England
183:Belgium
123:. Most
113:I-beams
61:rolling
2483:
2469:
2454:
2436:
2415:
2394:
2370:
2352:
2331:
2310:
2258:
2082:eNotes
2057:
2002:
1967:
1924:
1862:
1695:
1183:stands
901:, and
843:, and
815:and a
784:knives
750:deform
650:, and
425:, and
423:blooms
415:ingots
169:, 1813
150:, and
119:, and
2000:S2CID
1965:S2CID
1922:S2CID
1860:S2CID
1619:Notes
1546:Seams
1540:Scabs
1153:Sheet
1119:beams
1103:rails
950:Mills
841:pipes
825:gears
759:press
545:oxide
419:slabs
121:rails
105:steel
73:rolls
69:metal
63:is a
2481:ISSN
2467:ISBN
2452:ISBN
2434:ISBN
2413:ISBN
2392:ISBN
2368:ISBN
2350:ISBN
2329:ISBN
2308:ISBN
2274:2010
2256:ISBN
2235:2010
2094:2018
2055:ISBN
2034:2018
1693:ISBN
1674:2013
1206:and
1202:and
1138:wire
971:mill
623:via
2203:doi
1992:doi
1957:doi
1914:doi
1887:doi
1883:175
1852:doi
1518:Lap
1473:max
1068:or
969:or
429:.
334:in
330:at
319:in
252:.
185:to
55:In
2859::
2567:,
2264:,
2199:23
2197:.
2084:.
2080:.
2069:^
2024:.
2020:.
1998:.
1988:68
1986:.
1963:.
1955:.
1945:18
1943:.
1920:.
1910:71
1908:.
1881:.
1858:.
1850:.
1840:14
1838:.
1810:^
1795:^
1774:^
1757:^
1641:^
1626:^
1210:.
961:A
897:,
893:,
889:,
847:.
839:,
835:,
831:,
827:,
823:,
646:,
642:,
573:.
510:a
421:,
417:,
154:.
146:,
142:,
138:,
59:,
2556:e
2549:t
2542:v
2518:e
2511:t
2504:v
2458:.
2442:.
2421:.
2400:.
2358:.
2337:.
2316:.
2276:.
2237:.
2209:.
2205::
2096:.
2063:.
2036:.
2006:.
1994::
1971:.
1959::
1951::
1928:.
1916::
1893:.
1889::
1866:.
1854::
1846::
1701:.
1676:.
1491:R
1486:2
1482:f
1478:=
1469:d
1455:f
1451:R
1432:f
1428:t
1419:i
1415:t
1411:=
1408:d
1395:d
1379:f
1375:t
1352:i
1348:t
958:.
349:2
345:1
259:)
255:(
111:(
34:.
20:)
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