714:
639:
38:
271:
499:, but he and his family were much more reliant on the regional states. Conversely, the rulers of the states had much less use for the king and his court. Whole lineage groups had moved around under socioeconomic stress, border groups not associated with the Zhou culture gained in power and sophistication, and the geopolitical situation demanded increased contact and communication.
528:
1823:
553:, they held power over all other states to raise armies and attack mutual enemies, and extracted tribute from their peers. Meetings were held between the current hegemon and the rulers of the states where ritual ceremonies took place that included swearing of oaths of allegiance to the current Zhou king and to each other. The first hegemon was
367:) also belonged to a different branch lineage, but they submitted to royal authority. The relation of the polities in the old Zhou heartland to the royal court was informed by the preexisting kinship structures amongst them, whereas the relationship between the newly established regional states and the royal court was more directly political.
569:) with the duke and two senior ministers each in charge of five; military functions were also united with civil ones. These and related reforms provided the state, already powerful from control of trade crossroads, with a greater ability to mobilize resources than the more loosely organized states.
487:
hold clues that a parallel king may have reigned for over twenty years, and there may have been no recognized king for nine years. The scale of the division of loyalties between the regional states, and the effect it had on society is not clear, but archaeology attests significant movement of people
725:
As the powerful states absorbed more of their neighbours, so too did they centralize their internal power, increasing bureaucratization and reducing the power of the local aristocracy. A new class of gentlemen-scholars, distantly related to the aristocracy but part of the elite culture nonetheless,
666:
In the case of Jin, the shift happened in 588 when the army was split into six independent divisions, each dominated by a separate noble family: Zhi (智), Zhao (趙), Han (韓), Wei (魏), Fan (范), and
Zhonghang (中行). The heads of the six families were conferred the titles of viscounts and made ministers,
436:
Over time the parcels of land the royal court was able to grant became increasingly small, and population growth and associated socioeconomic pressures strained the Zhou confederation and the power of the central government. Canny clans formed alliances through marriage, powerful ministers began to
674:
divided the army into three parts and established their own separate spheres of influence. The heads of the three families were always among the department heads of Lu. In Jin, a full-scale civil war between 497 and 453 BCE ended with the elimination of most noble lines; the remaining aristocratic
662:
Regional lords had begun the practice of granting lands of their own to powerful ministerial lineages. Over generations, in some places these ministerial lineages had grown more powerful than their lords. Eventually the dukes of Lu, Jin, Zheng, Wey and Qi would all become figureheads to powerful
212:
The Zhou government thus had multiple dimensions of relationship with different sorts of powerful men. The lineage elders of the old homelands were related to the royal house mostly through the pre-existing kinship structure, and not all were politically subservient. The regional lords were
1102:, writing in 2007, employs the term "Realpolitik". Vogelsang, devoting a 2016 paper to the subject of terms used to name ideas in this philosophy, proposes the similar "political realism". Kern's 2000 monograph on Qin Shi Huang's political thought opts against providing a simple definition.
136:), the ties of family between the states attenuated, the power of the central government waned, and the states grew more autonomous. Some regional rulers granted subunits of their own territory to ministerial lineages who eventually eclipsed them in power and in some cases
217:
and were mostly defined by that responsibility, but this was also embedded in the kinship groups. Some few high government ministers had special, non-hereditary titles of nobility. Lastly, there were the leaders of polities outside the Zhou cultural sphere.
729:
By about 300 BCE, only seven main states remained: Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Yan, Wei and Zhao. Some of these built rammed earth walls along their frontiers to protect themselves both from the other states and raids by nomadic tribes like the
Quanrong and
86:
to much vaster territories with multiple population centers. Many of these submitted to royal authority, but many did not—even those that shared the same culture and ancestral temple surname as the ruling house. Prior to the
502:
The regional states, now operating more autonomously than ever, had to invent ways to interact diplomatically, and they began to systematize a set of ranks amongst them, meet for interstate conferences, build great walls of
607:
500 BCE a four-way balance of power emerged between Qin in the west, Jin in the north-center, Chu in the south, and Qi in the east whilst a number of smaller states continued to exist between Jin and Qi. The state of
1041:) granted virtually autonomous territories to his relatives and a few generals with military prowess. Over time these vassal states grew powerful and presented a threat to the ruler. Eventually, during the reign of
99:, or polities of other cultural groups. Once the Zhou had established themselves, they made grants of land and relative local autonomy to kinfolk in return for military support and tributes, under a system known as
429:", fenced off from the Zhou heartlands by their enfeoffed regional lords. Apart from their responsibilities to the throne, the regional lords were responsible for their families, their people, and the altars of
796:, emphasizing merit over than the privileges of birth. He forced all the conquered leaders to attend the capital where he seized their states and turned them into administrative districts classified as either
750:) were both conquered by Qin by 316 BCE. All the other states gradually followed suit until Zhou rule finally collapsed in 256 BCE. Against this backdrop, polities also continued to emerge, as in the case of
282:
in 1046 BCE, the early kings made hereditary land grants to various relatives and descendants. Along with the land and title came a responsibility to support the Zhou king during an emergency and to pay
491:
With the primary capital moved from
Haojing to Luoyi, after a succession crisis of indeterminate severity, the royal house had lost its power and almost all of its land. The prestige of the king, as
1454:
Davidson, Steven C. (2002). "Review: "Martin Kern. The Stele
Inscriptions of Ch'in Shih-huang: Text and Ritual in Early Chinese Imperial Representation. American Oriental Series, vol. 85"".
624:) in 627 BCE, establishing a pattern that would gradually see all smaller states eliminated. Towards the end of the Spring and Autumn period wars between states became increasingly common.
184:
with its own existing power structure, primarily organized as a set of culturally affiliated kinship groups. The defining characteristics of a noble were their ancestral temple surname (
522:
839:
252:. In these inscriptions, these tribal states are often referred to as name + "方". In modern style Chinese the term can be duplicated to Fang Guo (Traditional Chinese:⽅國).
2405:
1324:
1642:
Khayutina, Maria (2014). "Marital alliances and affinal relatives (sheng 甥 and 婚購) in the society and politics of Zhou China in the light of bronze inscriptions".
667:
each heading one of the six departments of Zhou dynasty government. From this point on, historians refer to "The Six
Ministers" as the true power brokers of Jin.
201:(1046 or 1045 BCE), the immediate goal of the nascent dynasty was to consolidate its power over its newly expanded geographical range, especially in light of the
1855:
774:
562:
1827:
1094:
Modern scholarship has begun to move away from terms like "Legalism", especially when projected anachronistically into a time prior to their classification by
801:
832:
549:
who protected the royal house and gave tribute to the king's court, while underwriting the remainder of the confederation with their military might.
1069:
revolted first and was followed by the rulers of six further states. The rebellion continued for three months until it was finally quelled. Later,
1614:
Hui, Victoria Tin-bor (2004), "Toward a dynamic theory of international politics: Insights from comparing ancient China and early modern Europe",
1073:
further weakened the power of the vassal states by eliminating many fiefdoms and restoring central control over their prefectures and counties.
1709:
1256:
1183:
825:
209:. To this end, royal relatives were granted lands outside the old Zhou homeland, and given relatively sovereign authority over those spaces.
140:. Over time generally the smaller polities were absorbed by the larger ones, either by force or willing submission, until only one remained:
496:
1848:
1731:
1679:
1547:
726:
formed the basis of this extended bureaucracy, their goal of upward social mobility expressed through participation in officialdom.
359:) did not, since their rulers belonged to a more senior branch of the lineage group than the Zhou kings. The rulers of the state of
1215:
642:
Late Spring and Autumn period, 5th century BCE, before the breakup of Jin and the Qin move into
Sichuan. The Wei on this map is
2400:
1993:
1691:(2008a). "Transmitting Antiquity: The Origin and Paradigmization of the "Five Ranks"". In Kuhn, Dieter; Stahl, Helga (eds.).
1411:
49:
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depending on their size. The officials who ran the new districts were selected on merit rather than by family connections.
2410:
2058:
1328:
1062:
793:
483:. Traditionally, the flight to the east and establishment of the new king is written as if it proceeded very rapidly, but
202:
57:
2415:
2053:
1841:
785:
284:
231:
79:
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1872:
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in the north and northeast had more room to expand and grew into large states. In the southwest the non-Zhou state of
265:
343:) was permitted to be retained by the nobility of the defeated Shang dynasty, in what would become a custom known as
2103:
2083:
1022:
446:
137:
817:
535:
As the power of the Zhou kings weakened, the Spring and Autumn period saw the emergence of hegemon-protectors
919:
734:. Smaller states like Zheng and Song were absorbed by their more powerful neighbors. The non-Zhou states of
572:
By 667, Qi had clearly shown its economic and military predominance, and Duke Huan assembled the leaders of
963:
426:
198:
1761:(2016). "The Xinian: an ancient historical text from the Qinghua University collection of bamboo books".
2420:
2242:
1572:(2018). "Where is King Ping? The History and Historiography of the Zhou Dynasty's Eastward Relocation".
901:
708:
352:
171:
1794:
Pines, Yuri (2004). "The question of interpretation: Qin history in light of new epigraphic sources".
1031:, the commanderies established during the Qin dynasty once more became vassal states in all but name.
2345:
2320:
2264:
2251:
1688:
1066:
1032:
996:
676:
1540:
The Stele
Inscriptions of Ch'in Shih-huang: Text and Ritual in Early Chinese Imperial Representation
924:
437:
overshadow the kings, and eventually a succession crisis brought an end to the
Western Zhou period.
2153:
2033:
2028:
1907:
1406:
1042:
484:
383:
320:
2098:
2063:
1803:
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1602:
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1493:
1463:
1004:
797:
550:
245:
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1667:
1663:
1543:
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891:
813:
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213:
established to provide a screen to the royal lands and exert control over culturally distinct
167:
1248:
1239:
986:
194:), their lineage line within that ancestral surname, and seniority within that lineage line.
2203:
1623:
633:
589:
472:
181:
96:
1674:, vol. 21, Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Society of Arts and Letters, pp. 359–74,
713:
2213:
1211:
554:
300:
206:
2138:
638:
1787:
Foundations of
Confucian Thought: Intellectual Life in the Chunqiu Period (722–453 BCE)
1758:
561:, Duke Huan reformed Qi to centralize its power structure. The state consisted of 15 "
430:
415:
411:
344:
88:
37:
1593:
Chun, Allen J. (1990). "Conceptions of
Kinship and Kingship in Classical Chou China".
244:
in ancient China. Today, scholars' understanding of these states primarily comes from
2394:
2365:
2330:
2183:
2088:
2078:
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1957:
1927:
1719:
1635:
1481:
1429:
1099:
911:
789:
743:
585:
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492:
464:
407:
351:
valley, most existing polities submitted to Zhou overlordship, although the state of
279:
241:
227:
92:
17:
495:, was not significantly diminished, and he retained his ritual authority within the
270:
2340:
2335:
2289:
2208:
2193:
2188:
2173:
2168:
2158:
2133:
2118:
1998:
1983:
1932:
1897:
955:
692:
609:
581:
577:
504:
456:
394:) demanded attention. In the southeast, the Zhou confederation was bordered by the
336:
328:
288:
261:
177:
75:
31:
1724:
The Cambridge History of Ancient China: from the origins of civilization to 221 BC
91:, the first of these ancient states were already extant as units of the preceding
410:
valley were not fully incorporated into a centralised political domain until the
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2360:
2350:
2310:
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2148:
2143:
2128:
2123:
2093:
2073:
2048:
2038:
2013:
2008:
1988:
1978:
1952:
1947:
1937:
1922:
1902:
1892:
1887:
1740:
1542:. American Oriental Series. Vol. 85. New Haven: American Oriental Society.
1028:
978:
937:
896:
878:
849:
684:
651:
643:
617:
531:
Map of the Five Hegemons during the Spring and Autumn period of the Zhou dynasty
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155:
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1973:
1942:
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1912:
1782:
1627:
1569:
863:
735:
671:
573:
558:
375:
237:
83:
2003:
1398:
945:
348:
1327:. Chinese Civilisation Centre, City University of Hong Kong. Archived from
527:
1822:
27:
City-states and territories that existed in China prior to its unification
1833:
1402:
1095:
1052:
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452:
101:
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1774:
1655:
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731:
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to a younger brother. Other states established at this time included
214:
65:
1055:
recommended the abolition of all fiefdoms, a policy that led in 154
1672:
A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures: An Investigation
616:) was overthrown by Chu in 678 BCE followed by Qin's annexation of
479:. His son fled east and was enthroned by several vassal leaders as
2023:
2018:
1748:
1484:(2007). ""Empire" in the Classical Era in China (304 BC–AD 316)".
762:
712:
637:
596:(hegemon), giving Duke Huan royal authority in military ventures.
269:
249:
2355:
2198:
1695:. Würzberg: Würzburger Sinologische Schriften. pp. 103–134.
1837:
821:
433:
outside their cities, where annual sacrifices were performed.
126:; 'many lords'). Over the course of the Zhou dynasty (
1145:
1143:
299:) was founded following a grant of land by the conquering
1295:
1293:
74:) were dynastic polities of China within and without the
523:
Interstate relations during the Spring and Autumn period
761:
in the north, which was established by the nomadic Bai
792:
eliminated noble titles which did not conform to his
557:(r. 685–643). With the help of his prime minister,
291:
valley, of the earliest vassal states, the state of
240:) refer to the various tribes and states during the
2298:
2250:
2241:
1966:
1880:
1871:
995:
977:
954:
936:
910:
877:
856:
765:(白翟) in the 400s BCE and would last until 295 BCE.
455:nomads allied with several vassal states including
1511:Vogelsang, Kai (2016). "Getting the terms right".
1238:
675:families divided Jin into three successor states:
1769:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 53–109.
1693:Perceptions of Antiquity in Chinese Civilization
1650:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 39–99.
848:Prominent people of insurgent states during the
588:, who elected him as their leader. Soon after,
406:). These polities and cultural outgroups in the
1802:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1–44.
1247:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p.
108:The rulers of the states were collectively the
30:For vassal states in a more general sense, see
1272:
1849:
833:
775:Administration of territory in dynastic China
82:. They ranged in size from large estates, to
8:
41:Map showing major states of the Zhou dynasty
1668:"The City-State in Spring-and-Autumn China"
1462:(2). University of Hawai'i Press: 465–473.
274:Selected states of the Western Zhou dynasty
2247:
1877:
1856:
1842:
1834:
840:
826:
818:
1749:Cambridge History of Ancient China (1999)
1704:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1198:
1149:
670:The same happened to Lu in 562, when the
2406:Former administrative divisions of China
1702:Bureaucracy and the State in Early China
1240:"The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han"
526:
36:
1284:
1115:
1087:
658:) that arose from the Partition of Jin.
1722:; Shaughnessy, Edward L, eds. (1999),
248:unearthed from the late Shang dynasty
205:following the death of the conquering
1385:
1373:
1311:
1218:from the original on 21 November 2010
7:
1122:
1441:
1361:
1349:
1299:
1161:
1134:
1098:, as in the case of Qin Shi Huang.
1670:, in Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed.),
148:), which unified the realm in 221
25:
1821:
1212:"Chinese History – Zhou Dynasty"
370:On the periphery, the states of
347:. In the Zhou heartland of the
278:Following the overthrow of the
1726:, Cambridge University Press,
1519:. Harrassowitz Verlag: 39–72.
1492:. Harrassowitz Verlag: 48–83.
1412:Records of the Grand Historian
543:
287:to the Zhou ancestors. In the
190:
122:
117:
113:
70:
61:
53:
1:
1789:, University of Hawai'i Press
1601:(1/3). Leiden: Brill: 16–48.
1580:(1). Academica Sinica: 1–27.
1063:Rebellion of the Seven States
718:
604:
600:
471:) in 771 BCE, the Zhou ruler
414:. Around the borders of the
203:Rebellion of the Three Guards
127:
1745:The Spring and Autumn Period
475:was killed in his palace at
232:List of Shang dynasty states
1243:. In Brook, Timothy (ed.).
1237:Lewis, Mark Edward (2008).
266:List of Zhou dynasty states
2437:
1616:International Organization
1456:China Review International
1027:In the early years of the
1020:
811:
808:Transition from Qin to Han
772:
706:
631:
520:
514:
507:, and absorb one another.
444:
259:
225:
165:
29:
1628:10.1017/s0020818304581067
1554:Cited in Davidson (2002).
1245:History of Imperial China
1051:), his political advisor
786:Qin's wars of unification
756:
747:
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717:The seven Warring States
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80:Qin's wars of unification
78:cultural sphere prior to
1415:
1067:Prince of Wu Liu Bi (劉濞)
1023:Kings of the Han dynasty
447:Spring and Autumn period
441:Spring and Autumn period
246:oracle bone inscriptions
663:aristocratic families.
592:conferred the title of
2401:Ancient Chinese states
1865:Ancient Chinese states
1828:Ancient Chinese states
722:
659:
532:
275:
199:Zhou conquest of Shang
156:first imperial dynasty
89:Zhou conquest of Shang
46:Ancient Chinese states
42:
1538:Kern, Martin (2000).
1214:. ChinaKnowledge.de.
1137:, pp. 33, 43–44.
716:
709:Warring States period
707:Further information:
703:Warring States period
641:
530:
485:excavated manuscripts
445:Further information:
273:
260:Further information:
236:Fang States (Chinese:
226:Further information:
172:Zhou dynasty nobility
40:
18:State (Ancient China)
2411:Former vassal states
1830:at Wikimedia Commons
1568:Chen Minzhen (陳民鎮);
1376:, pp. 366, 369.
794:ideals of governance
788:, the first emperor
2416:Political geography
1751:, pp. 545–586.
1302:, pp. 120–123.
1273:Chen and Pines 2018
1174:Keay, John (2009).
493:Heaven's eldest son
451:After an attack by
154:and became China's
50:traditional Chinese
1664:Lewis, Mark Edward
1352:, pp. 553–54.
1325:"The Zhou Dynasty"
1178:. Harper Collins.
1045:(r. 156–141
1035:(r. 202–195
769:Early Imperial era
723:
660:
551:First among equals
533:
488:around this time.
276:
197:Shortly after the
182:predynastic polity
58:simplified Chinese
43:
2388:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2237:
2236:
1826:Media related to
1711:978-0-521-88447-1
1700:Li Feng (2008b).
1418:. Zhonghua Shuju.
1275:, pp. 10–14.
1258:978-0-674-02477-9
1185:978-0-007-22178-3
1176:China – A History
1152:, pp. 46–48.
1013:
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814:Eighteen Kingdoms
481:King Ping of Zhou
168:Mandate of Heaven
16:(Redirected from
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1967:Minor states
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1335:November 11,
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1329:the original
1319:
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1285:Milburn 2016
1280:
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1206:
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661:
603:600 BCE and
598:
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505:rammed earth
501:
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256:Western Zhou
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2014:Western Guo
2009:Eastern Guo
1796:Early China
1783:Pines, Yuri
1763:Early China
1644:Early China
1570:Pines, Yuri
1222:November 7,
1029:Han dynasty
1017:Han dynasty
897:Xiang Liang
850:Qin dynasty
780:Qin dynasty
650:), not the
402:) and Yue (
84:city-states
2395:Categories
1595:T'oung Pao
1574:Asia Major
1405:(1959) . "
1386:Pines 2002
1374:Lewis 2000
1312:Pines 2004
1077:References
1071:Emperor Wu
864:Chen Sheng
857:Rising Chu
784:Following
773:See also:
672:Three Huan
559:Guan Zhong
521:See also:
497:Ji lineage
427:barbarians
166:See also:
162:Background
71:Zhūhóu guó
2371:Zhongshan
2219:Zhongshan
1636:154664114
1399:Sima Qian
1123:Chun 1990
1110:Citations
1005:Han Cheng
946:Han Guang
752:Zhongshan
652:other Wei
563:townships
349:Wei River
130:1046–256
2034:Han (SE)
2029:Han (NW)
1808:23354539
1785:(2002),
1775:44075753
1666:(2000),
1656:24392462
1586:26571325
1525:26402199
1498:24047664
1468:23732133
1442:Hui 2004
1403:Sima Tan
1362:Hsu 1999
1350:Hsu 1999
1300:Li 2008a
1216:Archived
1162:Li 2008a
1135:Li 2008b
1096:Sima Tan
1053:Chao Cuo
969:Zhao Xie
925:Tian Jia
920:Tian Dan
869:Wu Guang
802:counties
599:Between
511:Hegemons
473:King You
453:Quanrong
215:polities
102:fengjian
2224:Zhoulai
2214:Zhongli
1689:Li Feng
1607:4528471
1562:Sources
1407:39: 晉世家
1061:to the
987:Wei Jiu
964:Wu Chen
929:Tian Fu
902:Song Yi
887:Jing Ju
732:Xiongnu
721:260 BCE
691:), and
477:Haojing
425:lived "
398:of Wu (
396:peoples
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892:Mi Xin
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123:zhūhóu
110:zhuhou
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66:pinyin
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52::
2366:Zheng
2079:Liang
2044:Huang
2024:Guzhu
2019:Gumie
1958:Zheng
1804:JSTOR
1771:JSTOR
1652:JSTOR
1632:S2CID
1603:JSTOR
1582:JSTOR
1521:JSTOR
1494:JSTOR
1464:JSTOR
1263:p. 39
1100:Nylan
1082:Notes
586:Zheng
465:Zheng
250:Yinxu
2356:Yiqu
2341:Teng
2336:Song
2290:Zhao
2209:Zeng
2199:Yiqu
2194:Ying
2189:Yang
2174:Xing
2169:Xian
2159:Teng
2154:Tang
2139:Shěn
2134:Shēn
2119:Quan
2104:Peng
2084:Liao
1999:Deng
1984:Chao
1933:Song
1898:Chen
1728:ISBN
1706:ISBN
1676:ISBN
1544:ISBN
1337:2010
1253:ISBN
1224:2010
1180:ISBN
956:Zhao
693:Zhao
610:Deng
582:Chen
578:Song
457:Shen
337:Song
329:Chen
264:and
230:and
191:xíng
176:The
170:and
76:Zhou
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2311:Cai
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2144:Sui
2129:Ruo
2124:Rui
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2074:Lai
2064:Jia
2049:Huo
2039:Hua
1994:Dai
1989:Dao
1979:Bei
1953:Yue
1948:Yan
1938:Wey
1928:Shu
1923:Qin
1908:Jin
1903:Chu
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1888:Cai
1743:. "
1624:doi
1409:".
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1038:BCE
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800:or
744:Shu
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313:Yan
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133:BCE
62:诸侯国
54:諸侯國
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2109:Pi
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2059:Ji
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