Natural resource economics

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using high-aluminous clays or anorthosite to produce alumina, and magnesium before it was recovered from seawater. An abundant resource is quite similar to a perpetual resource. The reserve base is the part of an identified resource that has a reasonable potential for becoming economically available at a time beyond when currently proven technology and current economics are in operation. Identified resources are those whose location, grade, quality, and quantity are known or estimated from specific geologic evidence. Reserves are that part of the reserve base that can be economically extracted at the time of determination; reserves should not be used as a surrogate for resources because they are often distorted by taxation or the owning firm's public relations needs.

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investment and quicker realization of revenue. (3) The extensive development margin in which extraction is begun of known but previously uneconomic deposits. (4) The exploration margin in which the search for new deposits (resources) is conducted and the cost per unit extracted is highly uncertain with the cost of failure having to be balanced against finding usable resources (deposits) that have marginal costs of extraction no higher than in the first three stages above. (5) The technology margin which interacts with the first four stages. The Gray-Hotelling (exhaustion) theory is a special case, since it covers only Stages 1–3 and not the far more important Stages 4 and 5.

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they theoretically should be, it ought to be possible to eliminate areas of dislocations and greatly strengthen them, enabling lesser quantities to be used. To summarize, "mining" companies will have more and more diverse products, the world economy is moving away from materials towards services, and the population seems to be levelling, all of which implies a lessening of demand growth for materials; much of the materials will be recovered from somewhat uncommon rocks, there will be much more coproducts and byproducts from a given operation, and more trade in minerals and materials.

1021: 1219:(world's only significant source of cobalt) was given a hasty independence in 1960 and the cobalt-producing province seceded as Katanga, followed by several wars and insurgencies, local government removals, railroads destroyed, and nationalizations. This was topped off by an invasion of the province by Katangan rebels in 1978 that disrupted supply and transportation and caused the cobalt price to briefly triple. While the cobalt supply was disrupted and the price shot up, nickel and other substitutes were pressed into service. 994: 1174:(an immediate exhaustibility crisis), but on the other hand a material can go out of use, its resource can proceed to being perpetual if it was not before, and then the resource can become a paleoresource when the material goes almost completely out of use (e.g. resources of arrowhead-grade flint). Some of the complexities influencing resources of a material include the extent of recyclability, the availability of suitable substitutes for the material in its end-use products, plus some other less important factors. 1089:, human economics, and natural ecosystems. Economic models must be adapted to accommodate the special features of natural resource inputs. The traditional curriculum of natural resource economics emphasized fisheries models, forestry models, and mineral extraction models (i.e. fish, trees, and ore). In recent years, however, other resources, notably air, water, the global climate, and "environmental resources" in general have become increasingly important to policy-making. 1410:, 1.25% to 1.5% nickel, 1% to 1.4% copper, and 0.2% to 0.25% cobalt (commercial grade) Nautilus Minerals Ltd. is planning to recover commercial grade material averaging 29.9% zinc, 2.3% lead, and 0.5% copper from massive ocean-bottom polymetallic sulfide deposits using an underwater vacuum cleaner-like device that combines some current technologies in a new way. Partnering with Nautilus are Tech Cominco Ltd. and Anglo-American Ltd., world-leading international firms. 1516: 1357:, aluminum to a lesser degree). Bismuth is an example of a byproduct metal that does not follow the relationship very well; the 3% lead reserves in the western U.S. would have only 100 ppm bismuth, clearly too low-grade for a bismuth reserve. The world recoverable resource potential is 2,120 million tonnes for copper, 2,590 million tonnes for nickel, 3,400 million tonnes for zinc, 3,519 billion tonnes for aluminum, and 2,035 billion tonnes for iron. 1711: 119: 1337:

use iron ore. New materials will appear (note: they have), the result of technological advances, some acting as substitutes and some with new properties. Recycling will become more common and more efficient (note: it has!). Ultimately, minerals and metals will be obtained by processing "average" rock. Rock, 100 tonnes of "average" igneous rock, will yield eight tonnes of aluminum, five tonnes of iron, and 0.6 tonnes of titanium.

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product to final disposal, plus recyclability of the material and availability of satisfactory substitutes. Specifically, this shows that exhaustibility does not occur until these factors weaken and play out: the availability of substitutes, the extent of recycling and its feasibility, more efficient manufacturing of the final consumer product, more durable and longer-lasting consumer products, and even a number of other factors.

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and chemical properties, performance, and longevity comparable to the material of first choice, (3) well-established and known behavior and properties particularly as a component in exotic alloys, and (4) an ability for processing and fabrication with minimal changes in existing technology, capital plant, and processing and fabricating facilities. Some suggested substitutions were

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amount used per person was 84 kg per person in 1905, 7.1 kg in 1965, and 0.8 kg in 2005. Compare this to the USGS anthracite reserves of 18.6 billion tonnes and total resources of 79 billion tonnes; the anthracite demand has dropped so much that these resources are more than perpetual.

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The perpetual resource concept is a complex one because the concept of resource is complex and changes with the advent of new technology (usually more efficient recovery), new needs, and to a lesser degree with new economics (e.g. changes in prices of the material, changes in energy costs, etc.). On

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Academic and policy interest has now moved beyond simply the optimal commercial exploitation of the standard trio of resources to encompass management for other objectives. For example, natural resources more broadly have defined recreational, as well as commercial values. They may also contribute to

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in many locations. More recently, polymetallic sulfide deposits have been discovered and polymetallic sulfide "black muds" are being presently deposited from "black smokers" The cobalt scarcity situation of 1978 has a new option now: recover it from manganese nodules. A Korean firm plans to start

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Diverse authors have further contributions. Some think the number of substitutes is almost infinite, particularly with the flow of new materials from the chemical industry; identical end products can be made from different materials and starting points. Since all materials are 100 times weaker than

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or the Phosphoria formation (sic!). These changes could occur irregularly in different parts of the world. While Europe and North America might use anorthosite or clay as raw material for aluminum, other parts of the world might use bauxite, and while North America might use taconite, Brazil might

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situation or a "Resource War" situation is to use substitutes for a material in its end-uses. Some criteria for a satisfactory substitute are (1) ready availability domestically in adequate quantities or availability from contiguous nations, or possibly from overseas allies, (2) possessing physical

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Vogely has stated that the development of a mineral resource occurs in five stages: (1) The current operating margin (rate of production) governed by the proportion of the reserve (resource) already depleted. (2) The intensive development margin governed by the trade-off between the rising necessary

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As radical new technology impacts the materials and minerals world more and more powerfully, the materials used are more and more likely to have perpetual resources. There are already more and more materials that have perpetual resources and less and less materials that have nonrenewable resources

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Several other kinds of resources need to be introduced. If strategic and critical materials are the worst case for resources, unless mitigated by substitution and/or recycling, one of the best is an abundant resource. An abundant resource is one whose material has so far found little use, such as

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and made some other materials, such as tungsten, very difficult to obtain. This was the worst case for resource availability, becoming a strategic and critical material. After the war a government stockpile of strategic and critical materials was set up, having around 100 different materials that

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dealers cannot retain enough business to cover costs and close, and mines with too small a volume to cover costs also close. This is a mutually reinforcing process: customers convert to other forms of cleaner energy that produce less pollution and carbon dioxide, then the coal dealer has to close

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There are also other robot mining techniques that could be applied under the ocean. Rio Tinto is using satellite links to allow workers 1500 kilometers away to operate drilling rigs, load cargo, dig out ore and dump it on conveyor belts, and place explosives to subsequently blast rock and earth.

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in stomach medicine is hopelessly scattered (dissipated) and therefore impossible to recover, while bismuth alloys can be easily recovered and recycled. A good example where recycling makes a big difference is the resource availability situation for graphite, where flake graphite can be recovered

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Another way of replacing or extending a resource is by recycling the material desired from scrap or waste. This depends on whether or not the material is dissipated or is available as a no longer usable durable product. Reclamation of the durable product depends on its resistance to chemical and

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If a resource lasting 700 or more years is perpetual, one that lasts 350 to 700 years can be called an abundant resource, and is so defined here. How long the material can be recovered from its resource depends on human need and changes in technology from extraction through the life cycle of the

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Finally, what is a perpetual resource? The ASTM definition for a perpetual resource is "one that is virtually inexhaustible on a human time-scale". Examples given include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy, to which should be added salt, stone, magnesium, diamonds, and other materials

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Following this, the idea of a "Resource War" by the Soviets became popular. Rather than the chaos that resulted from the Zairean cobalt situation, this would be planned, a strategy designed to destroy economic activity outside the Soviet bloc by the acquisition of vital resources by noneconomic

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is another material where the trend towards obsolescence and becoming a paleoresource can be shown statistically. Production of anthracite was 70.4 million tonnes in 1905, 49.8 million tonnes in 1945, 13.5 million tonnes in 1965, 4.3 million tonnes in 1985, and 1.5 million tonnes in 2005. The

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for cobalt, and aluminum alloy automobile radiators for copper alloy automobile radiators. Materials can be eliminated without material substitutes, for example by using discharges of high tension electricity to shape hard objects that were formerly shaped by mineral abrasives, giving superior

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The USGS model based on crustal abundance data and the reserve-abundance relationship of McKelvey, is applied to several metals in the Earth's crust (worldwide) and in the U.S. crust. The potential currently recoverable (present technology, economy) resources that come closest to the McKelvey

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The economics and policy area focuses on the human aspects of environmental problems. Traditional areas of environmental and natural resource economics include welfare theory, land/location use, pollution control, resource extraction, and non-market valuation, and also resource exhaustibility,

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Three circles enclosed within one another showing how both economy and society are subsets of our planetary ecological system. This view is useful for correcting the misconception, sometimes drawn from the previous "three pillars" diagram, that portions of social and economic systems can exist

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were added to the list of perpetual resources, since they can be easily made from a lump of another form of carbon. Synthetic graphite, is made in large quantities (graphite electrodes, graphite fiber) from carbon precursors such as petroleum coke or a textile fiber. A firm named Liquidmetal

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The firm can keep workers out of danger this way, and also use fewer workers. Such technology reduces costs and offsets declines in metal content of ore reserves. Thus a variety of minerals and metals are obtainable from unconventional sources with resources available in huge quantities.

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because of lack of enough sales volume to cover costs. The coal dealer's other customers are then forced to convert unless they can find another nearby coal dealer. Finally, the anthracite mine closes because it does not have enough sales volume to cover its costs.

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Perpetual resources can transition to being a paleoresource. A paleoresource is one that has little or no demand for the material extracted from it; an obsolescent material, humans no longer need it. The classic paleoresource is an arrowhead-grade

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mentioned above. A study on the biogeophysical aspects of sustainability came up with a rule of prudent practice that a resource stock should last 700 years to achieve sustainability or become a perpetual resource, or for a worse case, 350 years.

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has dropped so far, is it possible to see how anthracite might become a paleoresource? Probably by customers continuing to disappear (i.e. convert to other kinds of energy for space heating), the supply network atrophy as anthracite

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methods of managing those resources to ensure their availability for future generations. Resource economists study interactions between economic and natural systems, with the goal of developing a sustainable and efficient economy.

1259:, although a certain kind of graphite could be almost replaced by a recycled product. Most graphite is synthetic, for example, graphite electrodes, graphite fiber, graphite shapes (machined or unmachined), and graphite powder. 1268:

from a renewable resource called kish, a steelmaking waste created when carbon separates out as graphite within the kish from the molten metal along with slag. After it is cold, the kish can be processed.

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Technologies, Inc. is utilizing the removal of dislocations in a material with a technique that overcomes performance limitations caused by inherent weaknesses in the crystal atomic structure. It makes

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resource; no one makes flint arrowheads or spearheads anymore—making a sharpened piece of scrap steel and using it is much simpler. Obsolescent products include tin cans, tin foil, the schoolhouse

2217: 1109:. Research topics could include the environmental impacts of agriculture, transportation and urbanization, land use in poor and industrialized countries, international trade and the environment, 1829:"Domestic Reserves vis-a-vis Resources","Congressional Handbook on U.S. Materials Import Dependency" House Committee on Banking, Finance & Urban Affairs, September 1981, pp. 19-21 1280:

Harrison Brown and associates stated that humanity will process lower and lower grade "ore". Iron will come from low-grade iron-bearing material such as raw rock from anywhere in an

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R. L. Erickson "Crustal Abundance of Elements, and Mineral Reserves and Resources", "United States Mineral Resources" U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, 1973, pp. 21-25

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Vogely, William A. "Nonfuel Minerals and the World Economy", Chapter 15 in "The Global Possible" by Repetto, Robert, World Resources Institute Book Yale University Press

1847:"THE RESOURCES WAR", "Congressional Handbook on U.S. Materials Import Dependency" House Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, September 1981, pp. 160-174 1186:

were purchased for cash or obtained by trading off U.S. agricultural commodities for them. In the longer term, scarcity of tin later led to completely substituting

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U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1956 Minerals Yearbook, "Coal-Pennsylvania Anthracite" pp. 120-165, and 1971 Minerals Yearbook, "Coal-Pennsylvania Anthracite" pp. 378-404

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The Federal Government suddenly became compellingly interested in resource issues on December 7, 1941, shortly after which Japan cut the U.S. off from

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These conflicting views will be substantially reconciled by considering resource-related topics in depth in the next section, or at least minimized.

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Resources change over time with technology and economics; more efficient recovery leads to a drop in the ore grade needed. The average grade of the

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U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1978-79 Minerals Yearbook, "Cobalt" and "The Mineral Industry of Zaire" chapters, Vol. I pp. 249-258, Vol. III pp. 1061-1066

1127:. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable economic conditions, lead to a 1052:. One main objective of natural resource economics is to better understand the role of natural resources in the economy in order to develop more 2158: 1955:

F. M. Herzig and M. Hannington "Polymetallic Sulfides at the Modern Seafloor-A Review" Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 10 (Elsevier) 1995, pp. 95-115

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Charles W. Merrill "Mineral Obsolescence and Substitution" "Mining Engineering", AIME, Society of Mining Engineers, September 1964, pp. 55-59

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The most recent resource information and guidance on the kinds of resources that must be considered is covered on the Resource Guide-Update

3221: 1085:. Resource economics brings together and connects different disciplines within the natural and social sciences connected to broad areas of 1883:

P. D. Laverty, L. J. Nicks, and L. A. Walters "Recovery of Flake Graphite from Steelmaking Kish", U.S. Bureau of Mines RI9512, 1994, 23 p.

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of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "Hotelling rent" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the

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metal and magnesia consumption (i.e. in refractories), currently obtained from seawater, will increase. Sulfur will be obtained from

1970:

Platts Metals Week "Underseas Mining Finds Richer Grades at Lower Cost: Nautilus", "Platts Metals Week", September 22, 2008, p. 14-15

1937:

Harold A. Taylor. "The Future of the Mineral Industry" University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Dept. of Mining Engineering, 1968, 15 p.

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physical breakdown, quantities available, price of availability, and the ease of extraction from the original product. For example,

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ore processed has dropped from 4.0% copper in 1900 to 1.63% in 1920, 1.20% in 1940, 0.73% in 1960, 0.47% in 1980, and 0.44% in 2000.

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Harrison Brown, James Bonner, and John Weir. "The Next Hundred Years" The Viking Press, 1955, pp. 17-26, 33-42, 89-94, and 147-154

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Peter T. Flawn. "Mineral Resources (Geology, Engineering, Economics, Politics, Law)" Rand McNally, Chicago, 1966, pp. 374-378

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alloys are 250% stronger than a standard titanium alloy. The Liquidmetal alloys can supplant many high performance alloys.

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Michael J. Conroy and James T. Peterson (2013). Decision Making in Natural Resource Management, New York: Wiley-Blackwell.

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Simon, Julian. "Can the Supply of Natural Resources Really be Infinite? Yes!", "The Ultimate Resource" 1981, Chapter 3

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and other radioisotopes in radiation treatment. Noncorroding lead as a cable covering has been replaced by plastics.

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University of Rhode Island Department of Environmental and Natural Resource Economics Retrieved October-22-09

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Wall Street Journal "Miner Digs for Ore in the Outback With Remote-Controlled Robots", March 2, 2010, pp. D1

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means (military?) outside the Soviet bloc (Third World?), then withholding these minerals from the West.

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Kevin H. Deal (2016). Wildlife and Natural Resource Management 4e, Boston: Delmar Cengage Learning.

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performance at lower cost, or by using computers/satellites to replace copper wire (land lines).

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U.S. Securities and Exchange Comm. Form 10-K "Liquidmetal Technologies, Inc." December 2008, p.3

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or are strategic and critical materials. Some materials that have perpetual resources such as

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relationship are those that have been sought for the longest time, such as copper, zinc, lead,

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Harrison Brown. "The Challenge of Man's Future" The Viking Press, New York, 1954, pp. 187-219

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pellets in North America and elsewhere today. As coking coal reserves decline, pig iron and

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that aims to address the connections and interdependence between human economies and natural

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Since anthracite resources are so far into the perpetual resource range and demand for

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Exploration of the ocean bottom in the last fifty years revealed manganese nodules and

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the one hand, a material (and its resources) can enter a time of shortage and become a

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David A. Anderson (2019). Environmental Economics and Natural Resource Management 5e,

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ASTM E60 "E2114-08 Standard Terminology for Sustainability", ASTM, 2008, pp. 615-618

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recovery operation in 2010; the manganese nodules recovered would average 27% to 30%

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Simon has stated that the supply of natural resources is infinite (i.e. perpetual)

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An important way of replacing a resource is by synthesis, for example, industrial

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Charles W. Merrill "Introduction" U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 630, 1965, p. 2

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U.S. Geological Survey "Mineral Commodity Summary", Appendix C, 2008, p. C1-C3

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provides insight to the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses

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production will use non-coke-using processes (i.e. electric steel). The

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in medical technology. Radium has been replaced by much cheaper

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Supply, demand and allocation of the Earth's natural resources

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formation, not much different from the input used to make

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The International Society for Ecological Economics (ISEE)

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overall social welfare levels, by their mere existence.

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Transitioning: perpetual resources to paleoresources

3122: 2980: 2861: 2721: 2712: 2522: 2317: 2230: 2200: 2149: 2140: 1215:had been in an iffy supply status ever since the 1746:by Peter Senge et al. Retrieved on: 2011-05-03. 996: 2118: 1081:within the ecological constraints of earth's 970: 8: 2089:The International Journal of Green Economics 1482:Global geochemical cycles critical for life 1014:Click on image areas for more information. 2984: 2718: 2146: 2125: 2111: 2103: 1119:is a 1938 economic model of non-renewable 977: 963: 97: 86:Learn how and when to remove this message 1796:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 1727: 1694: 1480: 109: 1160:Perpetual resources vs. exhaustibility 1276:Comprehensive natural resource models 1226:An important way of getting around a 7: 1190:foil for tin foil and polymer lined 1012:The three pillars of sustainability. 1769:Article Topic: ecological economics 1025:independently from the environment. 1069:field of academic research within 25: 1793:(2008). "exhaustible resources," 1740:The Power of Sustainable Thinking 1365:Trend towards perpetual resources 1077:. Its focus is how to operate an 3186: 3185: 1709: 1697: 1528: 1514: 1500: 1486: 1296:industry could shift from using 1065:Natural resource economics is a 944: 932: 117: 40: 1172:strategic and critical material 219:Concepts, theory and techniques 1316:or anhydrite. Metals such as 1: 1780:Wordnet Search: Earth science 1756:http://www.uri.edu/cels/enre/ 2151:Pollution / quality 3222:Natural resource management 1198:packaging substituting for 1165:Background and introduction 66:the claims made and adding 3238: 2005:http://www.dieoff.org/page 1672:Tragedy of the anticommons 1030:Natural resource economics 29: 3181: 2987: 2722:Types / location 1736:"3 Sustainability Models" 1477:Global geochemical cycles 1300:to using anorthosite and 1744:The Necessary Revolution 1103:environmental management 207:JEL classification codes 1767:Encyclopedia of Earth. 1657:Sustainable development 1605:Environmental economics 1154:non-renewable resources 393:Industrial organization 250:Computational economics 1677:Tragedy of the commons 1599:Energy and Environment 1332:will be obtained from 1026: 1006: 245:Experimental economics 1023: 1005: 3097:remnant natural area 2734:storage and recovery 2400:habitat conservation 2218:Deforestation (REDD) 2094:Curated bibliography 2067:New York: Routledge. 1742:by Bob Doppelt, and 1734:Willard, B. (2011). 1576:Ecological economics 1235:for bauxite to make 1107:environmental policy 472:Social choice theory 3051:Earth Overshoot Day 2625:Marine conservation 2606:non-timber products 1642:Population dynamics 1567:(policy think tank) 1560:Calculation in kind 1121:resource management 1061:Areas of discussion 939:Business portal 260:Operations research 240:National accounting 3212:Resource economics 3036:Ecosystem services 2159:Ambient standards 1625:Low-carbon economy 1610:Industrial ecology 1255:and many kinds of 1027: 1007: 270:Industrial complex 265:Middle income trap 51:possibly contains 3199: 3198: 3177: 3176: 2976: 2975: 2655:genetic resources 2591:genetic resources 2226: 2225: 2134:Natural resources 1994:978-0-8031-5768-2 1652:Social metabolism 1586:Energy accounting 1399:phosphate nodules 1334:manganese nodules 1200:tin electroplated 1083:natural resources 1067:transdisciplinary 1050:natural resources 1018: 1017: 987: 986: 96: 95: 88: 53:original research 16:(Redirected from 3229: 3217:Energy economics 3189: 3188: 3140: 3087:Natural heritage 3046:overexploitation 2985: 2719: 2665:herbal medicines 2645:FAO Plant Treaty 2185: 2162: 2147: 2127: 2120: 2113: 2104: 2053: 2047: 2041: 2040: 2038: 2037: 2023: 2017: 2014: 2008: 2002: 1996: 1986: 1980: 1977: 1971: 1968: 1962: 1956: 1953: 1947: 1944: 1938: 1935: 1929: 1926: 1920: 1917: 1911: 1908: 1902: 1899: 1893: 1890: 1884: 1881: 1875: 1872: 1866: 1863: 1857: 1854: 1848: 1845: 1839: 1836: 1830: 1827: 1821: 1818: 1812: 1809: 1803: 1788: 1782: 1777: 1771: 1765: 1759: 1753: 1747: 1732: 1714: 1713: 1702: 1701: 1693: 1615:Jevons's paradox 1592:Energy Economics 1532: 1518: 1504: 1490: 1444:blackboard, and 1404:manganese nodule 1133:rate of interest 1125:Harold Hotelling 1117:Hotelling's rule 995: 989: 988: 979: 972: 965: 951:Money portal 949: 948: 947: 937: 936: 433:Natural resource 225:Economic systems 121: 98: 91: 84: 80: 77: 71: 68:inline citations 44: 43: 36: 32:Land (economics) 21: 18:Scarce resources 3237: 3236: 3232: 3231: 3230: 3228: 3227: 3226: 3202: 3201: 3200: 3195: 3173: 3138: 3118: 3104:Systems ecology 3070:Natural capital 2972: 2857: 2846:reclaimed water 2708: 2670:UPOV Convention 2518: 2313: 2222: 2196: 2192:Ozone depletion 2183: 2160: 2136: 2131: 2080: 2061: 2059:Further reading 2056: 2048: 2044: 2035: 2033: 2025: 2024: 2020: 2015: 2011: 2003: 1999: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1965: 1959: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1900: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1860: 1855: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1806: 1799:, 2nd Edition. 1789: 1785: 1778: 1774: 1766: 1762: 1754: 1750: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1708: 1696: 1688: 1686: 1667:Thermoeconomics 1662:Systems ecology 1565:Earth Economics 1545: 1538: 1533: 1524: 1519: 1510: 1505: 1496: 1491: 1479: 1433: 1385:amorphous metal 1367: 1278: 1167: 1162: 1150:Hartwick's rule 1063: 1032:deals with the 1013: 1004: 993: 983: 945: 943: 931: 924: 923: 894: 884: 883: 882: 881: 645:von Böhm-Bawerk 533: 522: 521: 283: 275: 274: 230:Economic growth 220: 212: 211: 153: 151:classifications 92: 81: 75: 72: 57: 45: 41: 34: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3235: 3233: 3225: 3224: 3219: 3214: 3204: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3182: 3179: 3178: 3175: 3174: 3172: 3171: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3139:(perpetuation) 3134: 3128: 3126: 3120: 3119: 3117: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3100: 3099: 3092:Nature reserve 3089: 3084: 3083: 3082: 3077: 3067: 3066: 3065: 3055: 3054: 3053: 3048: 3038: 3033: 3032: 3031: 3026: 3016: 3015: 3014: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2988: 2982: 2978: 2977: 2974: 2973: 2971: 2970: 2969: 2968: 2963: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2923: 2918: 2913: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2897: 2896: 2886: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2865: 2863: 2859: 2858: 2856: 2855: 2850: 2849: 2848: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2827: 2826: 2816: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2797: 2796: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2775: 2770: 2769: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2737: 2736: 2725: 2723: 2716: 2710: 2709: 2707: 2706: 2705: 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2009: 1997: 1981: 1972: 1963: 1957: 1948: 1939: 1930: 1921: 1912: 1903: 1894: 1885: 1876: 1867: 1858: 1849: 1840: 1831: 1822: 1813: 1804: 1783: 1772: 1760: 1748: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1718: 1706: 1685: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1638: 1637: 1635:Hubbert's peak 1627: 1622: 1620:Land value tax 1617: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1595: 1588: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1539: 1534: 1527: 1525: 1520: 1513: 1511: 1506: 1499: 1497: 1494:Nitrogen Cycle 1492: 1485: 1483: 1478: 1475: 1432: 1429: 1366: 1363: 1277: 1274: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1111:climate change 1099:sustainability 1062: 1059: 1016: 1015: 1009: 1008: 985: 984: 982: 981: 974: 967: 959: 956: 955: 954: 953: 941: 926: 925: 922: 921: 916: 906: 901: 895: 890: 889: 886: 885: 880: 879: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 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3102: 3098: 3095: 3094: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3081: 3078: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3071: 3068: 3064: 3061: 3060: 3059: 3056: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3043: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3030: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3021: 3020: 3017: 3013: 3010: 3008: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2994: 2993: 2990: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2979: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2959: 2958: 2957: 2954: 2952: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2941:Privatization 2939: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2895: 2892: 2891: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2872: 2870: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2860: 2854: 2851: 2847: 2844: 2843: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2836:Surface water 2834: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2822: 2821: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2802: 2801: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2780: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2753: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2739: 2735: 2732: 2731: 2730: 2727: 2726: 2724: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2694: 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1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1647:Severance tax 1645: 1643: 1640: 1636: 1633: 1632: 1631: 1628: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1600: 1596: 1594: 1593: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1581:Economic rent 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1555:C. Arden Pope 1553: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1531: 1526: 1523: 1517: 1512: 1509: 1503: 1498: 1495: 1489: 1484: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1458: 1455:Pennsylvania 1453: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1430: 1428: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1402:developing a 1400: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1338: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1266: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1218: 1217:Belgian Congo 1214: 1210: 1208: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1173: 1164: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1151: 1148:Furthermore, 1146: 1143: 1140: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1094: 1090: 1088: 1087:earth science 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1022: 1011: 1010: 991: 990: 980: 975: 973: 968: 966: 961: 960: 958: 957: 952: 942: 940: 935: 930: 929: 928: 927: 920: 917: 914: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 896: 893: 888: 887: 878: 877: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 743: 741: 738: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 578: 576: 573: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 558: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 540:de Mandeville 538: 537: 532: 526: 525: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 469: 468:Public choice 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 443:Participation 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 403:Institutional 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 353:Expeditionary 351: 349: 346: 344: 343:Environmental 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 285: 279: 278: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 222: 216: 215: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 179: 176: 174: 173:International 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 155: 152: 149:Branches and 146: 145: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 126: 125: 124: 120: 116: 115: 112: 108: 104: 100: 99: 90: 87: 79: 69: 65: 61: 55: 54: 49:This article 47: 38: 37: 33: 19: 3167: / 3041:Exploitation 3018: 2926:Conservation 2869:Desalination 2804: 2697:conservation 2532:Biodiversity 2480:conservation 2327:Agricultural 2255:Fossil fuels 2050:Paul Averitt 2045: 2034:. 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529:Notable 477:Regional 453:Planning 428:Monetary 358:Feminist 303:Cultural 298:Business 103:a series 101:Part of 2992:Commons 2981:Related 2946:Quality 2862:Aspects 2788:glacial 2729:Aquifer 2635:Pasture 2586:Forests 2512:reserve 2287:Nuclear 2257: ( 2213:Trading 2208:Airshed 2007:113.htm 1738:citing 1690:Portals 1312:, then 1310:pyrites 1298:bauxite 1265:bismuth 1243:and/or 1237:alumina 1233:alunite 1196:aseptic 1079:economy 1044:of the 919:Schools 911: ( 870:Piketty 865:Krugman 730:Kuznets 720:Kalecki 695:Polanyi 585:Cournot 580:Bastiat 565:Ricardo 555:Malthus 545:Quesnay 517:Welfare 487:Service 158:Applied 134:Outline 129:History 58:Please 3002:global 2966:policy 2911:Supply 2874:Floods 2841:Sewage 2814:Marine 2806:huerta 2640:Plants 2630:Meadow 2490:health 2468:rights 2456:copper 2434:mining 2332:arable 2232:Energy 2172:Indoor 1992: 1682:World3 1446:radium 1388:alloys 1343:silver 1328:, and 1326:nickel 1318:copper 1314:gypsum 1245:nickel 1228:cobalt 1213:Cobalt 1207:copper 1183:rubber 1105:, and 1040:, and 1038:demand 1034:supply 855:Thaler 835:Ostrom 830:Becker 825:Sowell 805:Baumol 710:Myrdal 705:Sraffa 700:Frisch 690:Knight 685:Keynes 660:Fisher 655:Veblen 640:Pareto 620:Menger 615:George 610:Jevons 605:Walras 595:Gossen 463:Public 458:Policy 413:Labour 378:Health 235:Market 3145:Curse 2951:Right 2793:polar 2783:bergs 2746:Fresh 2714:Water 2427:metal 2351:Field 2302:shade 2292:Solar 2282:Hydro 2167:Index 1442:slate 1438:flint 1290:steel 1192:steel 1046:Earth 892:Lists 860:Hoppe 845:Lucas 810:Solow 800:Arrow 790:Simon 755:Lange 750:Hicks 725:Röpke 715:Hayek 665:Pigou 635:Clark 550:Smith 512:Urban 492:Socio 482:Rural 182:Macro 178:Micro 139:Index 3080:good 3029:land 3007:land 2819:Rain 2675:wood 2650:food 2613:Game 2524:Life 2475:Soil 2451:peak 2444:sand 2319:Land 2309:Wind 2184:(US) 2161:(US) 1990:ISBN 1470:coal 1372:salt 1349:and 1347:gold 1330:lead 1322:zinc 1302:clay 1282:iron 1181:and 876:more 600:Marx 590:Mill 575:List 2879:Law 2778:Ice 2618:law 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