2998:(Slip). Fixed connections of framing members do not allow movement of the connected parts. They can be found in axial-load bearing walls, curtain walls, trusses, roofs, and floors. Movement-Allowing connections are designed to allow deflection of the primary structure in the vertical direction due to live load, or in the horizontal direction due to wind or seismic loads, or both vertical and horizontal directions. One application for a vertical movement-allowing connection is to isolate non-axial load bearing walls (drywall) from the vertical live load of the structure and to prevent damage to finishes. A common clip for this application is an L-shaped top-of-wall clip for walls that are infill between floors. These clips have slots perpendicular to the bend in the clip. Another common clip is the bypass clip for walls that bypass outside the edge of the floor structure. When these clips are L-shaped, they have slots that are parallel to the bend in the clip. If the structure is in an active
202:) were adopted in 1930s, but were not applicable to coldāformed sections because of their relatively thin steel walls which were susceptible to buckling. Cold-formed steel members maintain a constant thickness around their cross-section, whereas hot-rolled shapes typically exhibit tapering or fillets. Cold-formed steel allowed for shapes which differed greatly from the classical hot-rolled shapes. The material was easily workable; it could be deformed into many possible shapes. Even a small change in the geometry created significant changes in the strength characteristics of the section. It was necessary to establish some minimum requirements and laws to control the buckling and strength characteristics. Also it was observed that the thin walls underwent local buckling under small loads in some sections and that these elements were then capable of carrying higher loads even after local buckling of the members.
2697:. A value of 29,500 ksi (203 GPa) is recommended by AISI in its specification for design purposes. The ultimate tensile strength of steel sheets in the sections has little direct relationship to the design of those members. The load-carrying capacities of cold-formed steel flexural and compression members are usually limited by yield point or buckling stresses that are less than the yield point of steel, particularly for those compression elements having relatively large flat-width ratios and for compression members having relatively large slenderness ratios. The exceptions are bolted and welded connections, the strength of which depends not only on the yield point but also on the ultimate tensile strength of the material. Studies indicate that the effects of cold work on formed steel members depend largely upon the spread between the tensile and the yield strength of the virgin material.
190:, of Nolen Frisa Associates, the joists were adequate to carry the initial loads and spans, based on current analysis techniques. Greene engineered a recent renovation to the structure and said that for the most part, the joists are still performing well. A site observation during this renovation confirmed that "these joists from the 'roaring twenties' are still supporting loads, over 80 years later!" In the 1940s, Lustron Homes built and sold almost 2500 steel-framed homes, with the framing, finishes, cabinets and furniture made from cold-formed steel.
3172:
compatibility between section flanges and web throughout elastic buckling analysis. This increase in prediction accuracy for any section geometry provides a solid basis for rational analysis extension and encourages cross-sectional optimization. Either DSM or the main specification can be used with confidence as the Ī¦ or Ī© factors have been designed to insure that both methods are accurate. Currently, DSM only provides solutions for beams and columns and has to be used in conjunction with the main specification for a complete design.
3188:
the AISI Specification. DSM is also limited in determining strength for sections in which very slender elements are used. This is due to the strength of a cross section being predicted as a whole with DSM instead of using the effective width method of the specification which breaks the cross section up into several effective elements. One slender element will cause low strength with DSM, which is not the case with the current specification method. The
38:
561:
549:
525:
243:(CSA) Technical Committee on Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, and Camara Nacional de la Industria del Hierro y del Acero (CANACERO) in Mexico (AISI, 2001). It included the ASD and LRFD methods for the United States and Mexico together with the Limit States Design (LSD) method for Canada. This North American Specification has been accredited by the American National Standard Institute (
154:
399:
cold-formed members and sheeting; German version prEN 1090 2: 2005 (prEN 1090 Part 2; Draft): Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures ā Technical requirements for the execution of steel structures; German version EN 10162: 2003: Cold-rolled steel sections ā Technical delivery conditions ā Dimensional and cross-sectional tolerances; German version
537:
186:
material use in building codes. One of the first documented uses of cold-formed steel as a building material is the
Virginia Baptist Hospital, constructed around 1925 in Lynchburg, Virginia. The walls were load bearing masonry, but the floor system was framed with double back-to-back cold-formed steel lipped channels. According to Chuck Greene,
3175:
Rational analysis is permitted when using optimized cold form shapes that are outside of the scope of the main specification and are not pre-qualified for DSM use. These non-pre-qualified sections use the factors of safety of Ļ and Ī© associated with rational analysis (see AISI 2001 Section A1.1 (b)).
2948:
Framing members are typically spaced at 16 or 24 inches on center, with spacing variations lower and higher depending upon the loads and coverings. Wall members are typically vertical lipped channel "stud" members, which fit into unlipped channel "track" sections at the top and bottom. Similar
2940:
Cold-formed steel framing (CFSF) refers specifically to members in light-frame building construction that are made entirely of sheet steel, formed to various shapes at ambient temperatures. The most common shape for CFSF members is a lipped channel, although "Z", "C", tubular, "hat" and other shapes
2684:
These two stressāstrain curves are typical for cold-formed steel sheet during tension test. The second graph is the representation of the steel sheet that has undergone the cold-reducing (hard rolling) during manufacturing process, therefore it does not exhibit a yield point with a yield plateau. The
437:
In building construction there are basically two types of structural steel: hot-rolled steel shapes and cold-formed steel shapes. The hot rolled steel shapes are formed at elevated temperatures while the cold-formed steel shapes are formed at room temperature. Cold-formed steel structural members are
333:
NCH 427 - suspended because it was written in the 1970s. Cold-formed steel sections were based in part on AISI (U.S). The local
Institute for Building code INN has specified in recent Codes for seismic design that designers must use the last edition of the AISI Specification for cold formed steel and
220:
since 1939. As a result of this work, George Winter is now considered the grandfather of cold-formed steel design. The ASD Specification was subsequently revised in 1956, 1960, 1962, 1968, 1980, and 1986 to reflect the technical developments and the results of continued research at
Cornell and other
3179:
Several situations may exist where a rational analysis application of DSM can be used. In general these would include: (1) determining the elastic buckling values and (2) using the DSM equations in
Appendix 1 to determine nominal flexural and axial capacities, Mn and Pn. The premise of DSM itself is
3005:
Connectors may be fastened to cold-formed steel members and primary structure using welds, bolts, or self-drilling screws. These fastening methods are recognized in the
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) 2007 North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members,
269:
The United States, Mexico and Canada use the North
American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, document number AISI S100-2007. Member states of the European Union use section 1-3 of the Eurocode 3 (EN 1993) for the design of cold formed steel members. Other nations
3187:
There are currently no provisions within the DSM that pertain to shear, web crippling, holes in members, or strength increases due to the cold work of forming. Research on several of these topics has been completed or is in the process of being completed and should be included in the next update of
2944:
Although cold-formed steel is used for several products in building construction, framing products are different in that they are typically used for wall studs, floor joists, rafters, and truss members. Examples of cold-formed steel that would not be considered framing includes metal roofing, roof
2688:
Cold forming has the effect of increasing the yield strength of steel, the increase being the consequence of cold working well into the strain-hardening range. This increase is in the zones where the material is deformed by bending or working. The yield stress can be assumed to have been increased
449:
When steel is formed by press-braking or cold rolled forming, there is a change in the mechanical properties of the material by virtue of the cold working of the metal. When a steel section is cold-formed from flat sheet or strip the yield strength, and to a lesser extent the ultimate strength, are
340:
CIRSOC 303 for Light Steel
Structures where cold formed steel is included. That Specification, now more than 20 years old, is being replaced by a new one, which will be, in general, an adaption of the current AISI one. The former CIRSOC 303 was an adaption of the Canadian code of that time. At this
185:
The use of cold-formed steel members in building construction began in the 1850s in both the United States and Great
Britain. In the 1920s and 1930s, acceptance of cold-formed steel as a construction material was still limited because there was no adequate design standard and limited information on
3192:
using CUFSM is the most commonly used approach to determine the elastic buckling loads. The program also limits DSM because holes cannot be considered, loads have to be uniform along the member, only simply supported boundary conditions are considered, and the buckling modes interact and cannot be
326:
Specification: NBR 14762:2001 Dimensionamento de estruturas de aƧo constituĆdas por perfis formados a frio - Procedimento (Cold-formed steel design - Procedure, last update 2001) and NBR 6355:2003 Perfis estruturais de aƧo formados a frio - PadronizaĆ§Ć£o (Cold-formed steel structural profiles, last
3183:
In some cases the rational analysis extension to DSM may be as simple as dealing with an observed buckling mode that is difficult to identify and making a judgment call as to how to categorize the mode. But it could also be used to allow an engineer to include the effects of moment gradients, the
398:
Specification: German
Committee for Steel Structures (DASt), DASt-Guidelines 016: 1992: Calculation and design of structures with thin-walled cold-formed members; In German Building Code: EN 1993-1-3: 2006 (Eurocode 3 Part 1-3): Design of steel structures ā General rules ā Supplementary rules for
3171:
2007 (AISI S100-07). DSM may be used in lieu of the Main
Specification for determining nominal member capacities. Specific advantages include the absence of effective width and iterations, while only using known gross-sectional properties. An increase in prediction confidence stems from forced
2729:
to undergo sizeable plastic deformations along its entire length prior to necking. This study also revealed that for the different ductility steels investigated, the elongation in 2-in. (50.8-mm) gage length did not correlate satisfactorily with either the local or the uniform ductility of the
2708:
is defined as ā'an extent to which a material can sustain plastic deformation without rupture.'ā It is not only required in the forming process but is also needed for plastic redistribution of stress in members and connections, where stress concentration would occur. The ductility criteria and
177:) or bending operations. The material thicknesses for such thin-walled steel members usually range from 0.0147 in. (0.373 mm) to about Ā¼ in. (6.35 mm). Steel plates and bars as thick as 1 in. (25.4 mm) can also be cold-formed successfully into structural shapes (AISI, 2007b).
2685:
initial slope of the curve may be lowered as a result of the prework. Unlike Fig.1, the stressāstrain relationship in Fig.2 represents the behavior of annealed steel sheet. For this type of steel, the yield point is defined by the level at which the stressāstrain curve becomes horizontal.
2994:) to each other or to the primary structure for the purpose of load transfer and support. Since an assembly is only as strong as its weakest component, it is important to engineer each connection so that it meets specified performance requirements. There are two main connection types,
2949:
configurations are used for both floor joist and rafter assemblies, but in a horizontal application for floors, and a horizontal or sloped application for roof framing. Additional elements of the framing system include fasteners and connectors, braces and bracing, clips and connectors.
2673:
A main property of steel, which is used to describe its behavior, is the stressāstrain graph. The stressāstrain graphs of cold-formed steel sheet mainly fall into two categories. They are sharp yielding and gradual yielding type illustrated below in Fig.1 and Fig.2, respectively.
319:
is the model code adopted with amendments by individual Provinces and Territories. The Federal government is outside the jurisdiction of the Provincial/Territorial authority but usually defers to the legislated requirements within the Province/Territory of the building site.
358:
Specification: IS:801 and IS:811, Indian standard code of practice for use of cold-formed light gauge steel structural members in general building construction, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi (1975). (currently under revision) Building Code : see - model code
2973:
In high-rise commercial and multi-family residential construction, CFSF is typically used for interior partitions and support of exterior walls and cladding. In many mid-rise and low-rise applications, the entire structural system can be framed with CFSF.
2725:. It was found that the ductility measurement in a standard tension test includes local ductility and uniform ductility. Local ductility is designated as the localized elongation at the eventual fracture zone. Uniform ductility is the ability of a tension
3180:
an example of rational analysis. It uses elastic buckling results to determine the ultimate strength through the use of empirical strength curves. This provides designers with a method for performing a rational analysis in a number of unique situations.
2959:
T members are unlipped channels, which are used for top and bottom plates (tracks) in walls, and rim joists in floor systems. Tracks also form the heads and sills of windows, and typically cap the top and bottom of boxed- or back-to-back
2941:
and variations have been used. The building elements that are most often framed with cold-formed steel are floors, roofs, and walls, although other building elements and both structural and decorative assemblies may be steel framed.
270:
utilize various design specifications, many based on AISI S-100, as adopted by the building codes listed below. Another list of international cold-formed steel codes and standards is maintained (and can be edited with permission) at
422:
Specification: AS/NZS 4600 AS/NZS 4600:2005 Similar to NAS 2007 but includes high strength steels such as G550 for all sections. (Greg Hancock) Building Code: Building Code of Australia (National document) calls AS/NZS 4600:2005
2730:
material. In order to be able to redistribute the stresses in the plastic range to avoid premature brittle fracture and to achieve full net-section strength in a tension member with stress concentrations, it is suggested that:
247:) as an ANSI Standard to supersede the 1996 AISI Specification and the 1994 CSA Standard. Following the successful use of the 2001 edition of the North American Specification for six years, it was revised and expanded in 2007.
149:
for structural or non-structural items such as columns, beams, joists, studs, floor decking, built-up sections and other components. Such uses have become more and more popular in the US since their standardization in 1946.
2977:
Cold Rolled Steel Buildings are manufactured from pre-galvanised steel coil. With this, it means getting all components of a Cold Rolled frame and a galvanised finish with no need for additional coating or painting.
296:
Specification: North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, document number AISI S100-2007 published by the American Iron and Steel Institute in October 2007. Building Code:
257:
has also published commentaries on various editions of the specifications, design manuals, framing design standards, various design guides, and design aids for using cold-formed steel. For details, see AISI
3006:
Chapter E. Other fastening methods, such as clinching, power actuated fasteners (PAF), mechanical anchors, adhesive anchors and structural glue, are used based on manufacturer's performance-based tests.
391:
Specification: EN 1993-1-3 (same as Eurocode 3 part 1-3), Design of steel structures - Cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting. Each European country will get its own National Annex Documents (NAD).
352:
National Structural Code of the Philippines 2010, Volume 1 Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Chapter 5 Part 3 Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members is based on AISI S100-2007
250:
This updated specification includes new and revised design provisions with the additions of the Direct Strength Method in Appendix 1 and the Second-Order Analysis of structural systems in Appendix 2.
341:
time CIRSOC 303 was very old, now CIRSOC 301 is in revolution to be aligned with the American codes (LRFD design). In the near future both codes will be aligned also in designations and terminology.
239:
In 2001, the first edition of the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members was developed by a joint effort of the AISI Committee on Specifications, the
517:
Frameless Stressed skin structures: Corrugated sheets or sheeting profiles with stiffened edges are used for small structures up to a 30 ft clear span with no interior framework
3103:
Application in many variety of loading cases. This includes building frames, automobile, aircraft, home appliances, etc. Use limited in cases where high ductility requirements.
3516:
2737:
The minimum uniform elongation in a 3-in. (76.2-mm) gauge length minus the elongation in a 1-in. (25.4-mm) gage length containing neck and fracture be at least 3%.
48:
226:
3537:
501:
A broad classification of the cold-formed shapes used in the construction industry can be made as individual structural framing members or panels and decks.
374:
Specification: Design Manual of Light-gauge Steel Structures Building Code: Technical standard notification No.1641 concerning light-gauge steel structures
2766:
The various possible welds in cold formed steel sections, where the thickness of the thinnest element in the connection is 3/16" or less are as follows
3002:, vertical and horizontal movement-allowing connections may be used to accommodate both the vertical deflection and horizontal drift of the structure.
2749:
Weldability refers to the capacity of steel to be welded into a satisfactory, crack free, sound joint under fabrication conditions without difficulty.
311:
Specification: North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, document number CAN/CSA S136-07 as published by
169:
facilities, firearms, various types of equipment and others. These types of sections are cold-formed from steel sheet, strip, plate, or flat bar in
3291:
187:
3035:
The material is not deformed; there is no initial strain in the material, hence yielding starts at actual yield value as the original material.
438:
shapes commonly manufactured from steel plate, sheet metal or strip material. The manufacturing process involves forming the material by either
218:
2963:
U members are unlipped channels that have a smaller depth than tracks, but are used to brace members, as well as for ceiling support systems.
2689:
by 15% or more for design purposes. The yield stress value of cold-formed steel is usually between 33ksi and 80ksi. The measured values of
3329:
Golden Anniversary of the AISI Specification, Proceedings of the 13th International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures
2679:
236:
and Theodore V. Galambos (AISI, 1991). Both ASD and LRFD Specifications were combined into a single specification in 1996 (AISI, 1996).
205:
In the United States, the first edition of the Specification for the Design of Light Gage Steel Structural Members was published by the
230:
3366:
3126:
High Unit weight increases the overall cost ā material, lifting, transporting, etc. It is difficult to work with (e.g. connection).
3100:
Load bearing structures, usually heavy load bearing structures and where ductility is more important ( Example Seismic prone areas)
2952:
In North America, member types have been divided into five major categories, and product nomenclature is based on those categories.
254:
222:
206:
82:
2734:
The minimum local elongation in a - 1/2 in. (12.7-mm) gauge length of a standard tension coupon including the neck be at least 20%.
2969:
L members are angles, which in some cases can be used for headers across openings, to distribute loads to the adjacent jamb studs.
3176:
The result of the rational analysis times the appropriate factor of safety will be used as the design strength of the section.
2796:
Welded connections in which thickness of the thinnest connected arc is greater than 3/16" (4.76mm) shall be in accordance with
3266:
240:
2320:
Cold-formed welded and seamless high-strength, low-alloy structural tubing with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance
3532:
3561:
3113:
Standard shapes are followed. High value of unit weight limits the flexibility of manufacturing wide variety of shapes.
368:
Specification: Technical Code of Cold-formed Thin-wall Steel Structures Building Code: GB 50018-2002 (current version)
312:
3551:
560:
411:
Eurocode for cold-formed steel in the UK. BS EN 1993-1-3:2006: Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. General rules.
298:
3228:
2885:
2869:
2850:
3151:, also described in the earlier section, is part of the manufacturing process of cold-formed steel sheet. It is a
334:
the AISC for hot rolled, in their original versions in English until some traduced adaption will be issued here .
548:
2726:
3520:
Members, member companies, and associations that are allied with the Steel Framing Industry Association (SFIA)
64:
3527:
360:
380:
Malaysia uses British Standard BS5950, especially BS5950:Part 5; AS4600 (from Australia) is also referenced.
1280:
Hot-rolled and cold-rolled high-strength low-alloy steel sheet and strip with improved corrosion resistance
210:
115:
3148:
119:
107:
60:
2956:
S members are lipped channels, most often used for wall studs, floor joists, and ceiling or roof rafters.
3556:
2917:
2901:
2690:
571:
The AISI Specification allows the use of steel to the following ASTM specifications in the table below:
146:
3426:
Ide, Brian, S.E., P.E. and Allen, Don, P.E. SECB.Structural Engineer Magazine. September 2009. page 26
3142:
More possibilities as the concept is relatively new and material finds wide variety of applications.
2116:
Hot-rolled and cold-rolled high-strength low-alloy steel sheets and strip with improved formability
3189:
3116:
Any desired shape can be molded out of the sheets. The light weight enhances its variety of usage.
2821:
1366:
Hot-rolled and cold-rolled high-strength low-alloy columbium and/or vanadium steel sheet and strip
285:
Building Codes: EBCS-1 Basis of design and actions on structures EBCS-3 Design of steel structures
234:
3184:
influence of different end conditions, or the influence of torsion warping on all buckling modes.
3254:
Commentary on North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
3167:
The Direct Strength Method (DSM) is an alternative method of design located in Appendix 1 of the
2722:
2709:
performance of low-ductility steels for cold-formed members and connections have been studied by
214:
524:
327:
update 2003) Building Code: ABNT - AssociaĆ§Ć£o Brasileira de Normas TĆ©cnicas (www.abnt.org.br)
2966:
F members are "furring" or "hat" channels, typically used horizontally on walls or ceilings.
2861:
2842:
199:
2753:
is possible in cold-formed steel elements, but it shall follow the standards given in AISI
3436:
165:, car bodies, railway coaches, highway products, transmission towers, transmission poles,
3342:
Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
3129:
Low unit weight reduces the cost comparatively. Ease of construction (e.g. connection).
2945:
and floor deck, composite deck, metal siding, and purlins and girts on metal buildings.
145:
Cold-formed steel, especially in the form of thin gauge sheets, is commonly used in the
3152:
536:
450:
increased as a result of this cold working, particularly in the bends of the section.
3545:
174:
111:
767:
Cold-formed welded and seamless carbon steel structural tubing in rounds and shapes
3388:
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
3371:
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
3169:
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-formed Steel Structural Members
3155:
technique that alters the microstructure of the cold-reducing steel to recover its
2999:
170:
103:
3270:
221:
universities (Yu et al., 1996). In 1991, AISI published the first edition of the
3229:"Custom Cold Rolled & Cold Drawn Metal Profiles | Rathbone Precision Metals"
2825:
316:
139:
135:
3400:
Gregory J. Hancock, Thomas M. Murray, Duane S. Ellifritt, Marcel Dekker Inc., ā
3090:
Local buckling, Distortional Buckling, Global Buckling have to be considered.
3038:
The yield value is increased by 15%ā30% due to prework (initial deformation).
2986:
Connectors are used in cold-formed steel construction to attach members (i.e.
2678:
405:
Specification: UNI CNR 10022 (National Document) EN 1993-1-3 (Not compulsory)
153:
134:) are commonly used in all areas of manufacturing. The terms are opposed to
17:
3156:
2987:
2830:
2705:
162:
123:
3526:
Members, member companies, and associations that are allied with the CFSEI
508:
Roof and wall systems (industrial, commercial, and agricultural buildings)
3437:"Steel Buildings with 25-year warranty | Cold Rolled Steel Building"
1258:
High-strength low-alloy structural steel with 50 ksi minimum yield point
1156:
High-strength low-alloy columbiumā vanadium steels of structural quality
302:
166:
161:
Cold-formed steel members have been used also in bridges, storage racks,
213:(ASD) Specification was based on the research work sponsored by AISI at
2750:
3469:
3087:
Most of the time, we consider only the global buckling of the member.
271:
3464:
2991:
3355:
Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
3303:
Specification for the Design of Light Gage Steel Structural Members
3484:
3010:
Hot-rolled versus cold-rolled steel and the influence of annealing
2740:
The tensile-strength-to-yield-point ratio Fu /Fy be at least 1.05.
2218:
55% aluminum-zinc alloy-coated steel sheet by the hot-dip process
152:
2342:
Zinc-5% aluminum alloy-coated steel sheet by the hot-dip process
504:
Some of the popular applications and the preferred sections are:
453:
Some of the main properties of cold formed steel are as follows:
3504:
1012:
Hot-rolled carbon steel sheets and strips of structural quality
244:
2811:
Minimum material thickness recommended for welding connections
31:
3314:
Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Volume 85, No.ST9,
47:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
3494:
3521:
665:
Low and intermediate tensile strength carbon steel plates
496:
Panels and decks can provide enclosed cells for conduits.
3510:
Other related links can be found in the following pages:
3479:
3459:
2792:
When thickness greater than or equal to 3/16" (4.76mm):
259:
56:
3489:
3474:
3402:
Cold-Formed Steel Structures to the AISI Specification
475:
Non shrinking and non creeping at ambient temperatures
3499:
106:
processes carried out near room temperature, such as
2762:
When thickness less than or equal to 3/16" (4.76mm):
217:
under the direction of late Professor George Winter
1791:Zinc-coated or zinc-iron alloy-coated steel sheet
102:) is the common term for steel products shaped by
2693:based on the standard methods usually range from
469:Substantial elimination of delays due to weather
3488:Metal Building Manufactures Association (MBMA)
429:Specification: AS/NZS 4600 (same as Australia)
305:may be enforced, but both reference AISI S100.
27:Steel products shaped by cold-working processes
3478:Cold-formed Steel Engineers Institute (CFSEI)
514:Structural members for plane and space trusses
3483:Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC)
3213:Wei-Wen Yu, John Wiley and Sons Inc. (2000).
227:Missouri University of Science and Technology
45:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
3473:Steel Stud Manufacturers Association (SSMA)
3381:
3379:
3208:
3206:
595:Minimum Elongation (%) in 2-in. Gage Length
253:In addition to the AISI specifications, the
198:Design standards for hot-rolled steel (see
3463:Steel Framing Industry Association (SFIA)
3386:American Iron and Steel Institute (2007).
3327:Yu, W.W., D.S. Wolford, and A.L. Johnson,
3316:Cold-Formed, Light Gage Steel Construction
1689:Cold-rolled carbon structural steel sheet
511:Steel racks for supporting storage pallets
463:Ease of prefabrication and mass production
3458:American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
643:High-strength low-alloy Structural steel
83:Learn how and when to remove this message
3013:
2814:
2800:. The weld positions are covered as per
573:
433:Common section profiles and applications
272:Cold-Formed Steel Codes Around the World
3202:
520:
466:Fast and easy erection and installation
209:(AISI) in 1946 (AISI, 1946). The first
3217:. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
3193:easily distinguishable in some cases.
2918:Wire-fed MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding
2902:Wire-fed MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding
487:Economy in transportation and handling
2695:29,000 to 30,000 ksi (200 to 207 GPa)
969:High-strength carbonāmanganese steel
7:
3353:American Iron and Steel Institute,
3340:American Iron and Steel Institute,
3301:American Iron and Steel Institute,
3252:American Iron and Steel Institute,
3139:In the advanced stages at present.
3061:Unit weight is comparatively huge.
2982:Connectors and fasteners in framing
233:under the directions of Wei-Wen Yu
231:Washington University in St. Louis
25:
3373:, Washington, D.C. Published 2001
3367:American Iron and Steel Institute
3357:, Washington, D.C. Published 1996
3344:, Washington, D.C. Published 1991
3256:, Washington, D.C. Published 2007
265:International codes and standards
255:American Iron and Steel Institute
223:Load and Resistance Factor Design
207:American Iron and Steel Institute
3331:, St. Louis, MO., Published 1996
3305:, New York, N.Y., Published 1946
2836:Suggested minimum CFS thickness
2677:
2669:Typical stressāstrain properties
1286:Hot-rolled as rolled cut length
559:
547:
535:
523:
317:National Building Code of Canada
194:History of AISI design standards
36:
361:National Building Code of India
446:to achieve the desired shape.
313:Canadian Standards Association
241:Canadian Standards Association
1:
3468:Steel Framing Alliance (SFA)
566:CFS stud/girt wall connection
3493:Steel Joist Institute (SJI)
3498:Steel Deck Institute (SDI)
3267:"Virginia Baptist Hospital"
2996:Fixed and Movement-Allowing
2772:Groove Welds in Butt joints
1307:Hot-rolled as rolled coils
481:Termite-proof and rot proof
460:High strength and stiffness
225:Specification developed at
59:, discuss the issue on the
3578:
3503:Steel Recycling Institute
3163:Alternative design methods
589:Tensile Strength Fu (ksi)
173:machines, by press brake (
157:Cold-formed steel building
2936:Cold-formed steel framing
3233:www.rathboneprofiles.com
3215:Cold-Formed Steel Design
3074:More ductile in nature.
2931:Application in buildings
600:Carbon structural steel
586:Yield Strength Fy (ksi)
554:CFS X-braced wall system
3536:Steel Framing Benefits
3415:Iron and Steel Products
3134:Research possibilities
472:More accurate detailing
211:Allowable Stress Design
3108:Flexibility of shapes
3045:Modulus of elasticity
478:Formwork is not needed
158:
2691:modulus of elasticity
315:. Building Code: The
156:
147:construction industry
3531:Steel Framing Links
3064:It is much smaller.
3029:Material properties
2755:S100-2007, Section E
1328:Hot-rolled annealed
65:create a new article
57:improve this article
3562:Scottish inventions
3417:ā, Vol. 01.04, 2005
3190:finite strip method
493:Recyclable material
457:Lightness in weight
3552:Building materials
3390:. Washington, D.C.
3032:Yielding strength
2898:Field-fabrication
2882:Field-fabrication
2847:Field-fabrication
2784:Flare Groove Welds
2723:Cornell University
2701:Ductility criteria
577:Steel Designation
215:Cornell University
159:
3146:
3145:
2926:
2925:
2914:Shop-fabrication
2866:Shop-fabrication
2826:Field fabrication
2666:
2665:
1683:Cold rolled (14)
1659:Cold rolled (15)
1635:Cold rolled (16)
1611:Cold rolled (18)
1587:Cold rolled (20)
1563:Cold rolled (22)
1522:Cold rolled (14)
1498:Cold rolled (15)
1474:Cold rolled (16)
1450:Cold rolled (18)
1426:Cold rolled (20)
1402:Cold rolled (22)
580:ASTM Designation
444:cold roll forming
128:cold-rolled steel
96:Cold-formed steel
93:
92:
85:
67:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
3569:
3441:
3440:
3433:
3427:
3424:
3418:
3413:ASTM Standard, ā
3411:
3405:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3383:
3374:
3364:
3358:
3351:
3345:
3338:
3332:
3325:
3319:
3318:, Published 1959
3312:
3306:
3299:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3269:. Archived from
3263:
3257:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3210:
3014:
2862:Structural steel
2843:Structural steel
2815:
2681:
1681:Hot rolled (12)
1657:Hot rolled (14)
1633:Hot rolled (16)
1609:Hot rolled (18)
1585:Hot rolled (20)
1561:Hot rolled (23)
1520:Hot rolled (12)
1496:Hot rolled (14)
1472:Hot rolled (16)
1448:Hot rolled (18)
1424:Hot rolled (20)
1400:Hot rolled (23)
574:
563:
551:
539:
527:
490:Non-combustibile
200:structural steel
140:hot-rolled steel
136:hot-formed steel
88:
81:
77:
74:
68:
40:
39:
32:
21:
3577:
3576:
3572:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3542:
3541:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3444:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3425:
3421:
3412:
3408:
3399:
3395:
3385:
3384:
3377:
3365:
3361:
3352:
3348:
3339:
3335:
3326:
3322:
3313:
3309:
3300:
3296:
3290:
3286:
3276:
3274:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3251:
3247:
3237:
3235:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3212:
3211:
3204:
3199:
3165:
3012:
2984:
2938:
2933:
2813:
2807:
2747:
2703:
2671:
567:
564:
555:
552:
543:
540:
531:
528:
499:
484:Uniform quality
435:
417:
386:
347:
291:
280:
267:
196:
183:
89:
78:
72:
69:
54:
41:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3575:
3573:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3544:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3518:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3448:External links
3446:
3443:
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3419:
3406:
3393:
3375:
3359:
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3333:
3320:
3307:
3294:
3284:
3258:
3245:
3220:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3164:
3161:
3153:heat treatment
3144:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3118:
3117:
3114:
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3105:
3104:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3077:Less ductile.
3075:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3043:
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3030:
3026:
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3022:
3019:
3017:
3011:
3008:
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2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2907:
2906:43 to 54 mils
2904:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2890:54 to 68 mils
2888:
2883:
2880:
2876:
2875:
2874:54 to 68 mils
2872:
2867:
2864:
2857:
2856:
2855:54 to 68 mils
2853:
2848:
2845:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2828:
2819:
2812:
2809:
2802:AISI S100-2007
2788:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2778:Arc Seam Welds
2776:
2775:Arc Spot Welds
2773:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2702:
2699:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2663:
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2517:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2500:
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2485:
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2479:
2478:
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2474:
2472:
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2468:
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2310:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
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2148:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2113:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
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1830:
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1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
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1809:
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1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1797:
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1792:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1775:
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1770:
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1763:
1760:
1757:
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1728:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1686:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1661:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1589:
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1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1530:A607 Class II
1528:
1525:
1524:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
994:
991:
988:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
973:
970:
966:
965:
962:
959:
956:
953:
951:
948:
945:
944:
941:
938:
935:
932:
930:
927:
924:
923:
920:
917:
914:
911:
909:
906:
903:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
888:
885:
882:
881:
879:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
866:
863:
860:
857:
854:
852:
849:
846:
845:
842:
839:
836:
833:
831:
828:
825:
824:
821:
818:
815:
812:
810:
807:
804:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
789:
786:
783:
782:
780:
778:
776:
774:
771:
768:
764:
763:
760:
757:
754:
751:
749:
746:
743:
742:
739:
736:
733:
730:
728:
725:
722:
721:
718:
715:
712:
709:
707:
704:
701:
700:
697:
694:
691:
688:
686:
683:
680:
679:
677:
675:
673:
671:
669:
666:
662:
661:
658:
655:
652:
649:
647:
644:
640:
639:
636:
633:
630:
627:
625:
622:
619:
618:
615:
612:
609:
606:
604:
601:
597:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
569:
568:
565:
558:
556:
553:
546:
544:
541:
534:
532:
529:
522:
519:
518:
515:
512:
509:
498:
497:
494:
491:
488:
485:
482:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
461:
458:
434:
431:
416:
413:
409:United Kingdom
385:
382:
346:
343:
290:
287:
279:
276:
266:
263:
195:
192:
182:
179:
126:and sheets of
122:, etc. Stock
91:
90:
51:of the subject
49:worldwide view
44:
42:
35:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3574:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3456:
3453:Organizations
3452:
3447:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3423:
3420:
3416:
3410:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3394:
3389:
3382:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3363:
3360:
3356:
3350:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3334:
3330:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3311:
3308:
3304:
3298:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3273:on 3 May 2009
3272:
3268:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3246:
3234:
3230:
3224:
3221:
3216:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3009:
3007:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2935:
2930:
2928:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2893:
2889:
2887:
2886:Stick-welding
2884:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2871:
2870:Stick-welding
2868:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2852:
2851:Stick-welding
2849:
2846:
2844:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2799:
2798:ANSI/AISC-360
2794:
2793:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2756:
2752:
2744:
2739:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2707:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2682:
2680:
2675:
2668:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:HSLAS Type B
2567:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2494:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2467:HSLAS Type A
2466:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:HSLAS Type B
2016:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1950:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:HSLAS Type A
1915:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1502:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:A607 Class I
1368:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1049:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
989:
985:
982:
979:
976:
974:
971:
968:
967:
963:
960:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
946:
942:
939:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
925:
921:
918:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
904:
900:
897:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
883:
880:
878:
876:
874:Shape Tubing
873:
871:
869:
868:
864:
861:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
847:
843:
840:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
826:
822:
819:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
805:
801:
798:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
784:
781:
779:
777:
775:
773:Round Tubing
772:
769:
766:
765:
761:
758:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
744:
740:
737:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
723:
719:
716:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
702:
698:
695:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
681:
678:
676:
674:
672:
670:
667:
664:
663:
659:
656:
653:
650:
648:
645:
642:
641:
637:
634:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
620:
616:
613:
610:
607:
605:
602:
599:
598:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
575:
572:
562:
557:
550:
545:
538:
533:
526:
521:
516:
513:
510:
507:
506:
505:
502:
495:
492:
489:
486:
483:
480:
477:
474:
471:
468:
465:
462:
459:
456:
455:
454:
451:
447:
445:
441:
440:press-braking
432:
430:
428:
424:
421:
414:
412:
410:
406:
404:
400:
397:
393:
390:
383:
381:
379:
375:
373:
369:
367:
363:
362:
357:
353:
351:
344:
342:
339:
335:
332:
328:
325:
321:
318:
314:
310:
306:
304:
300:
295:
294:United States
288:
286:
284:
277:
275:
273:
264:
262:
260:
256:
251:
248:
246:
242:
237:
235:
232:
228:
224:
219:
216:
212:
208:
203:
201:
193:
191:
189:
180:
178:
176:
175:machine press
172:
168:
164:
155:
151:
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
87:
84:
76:
73:December 2010
66:
62:
58:
52:
50:
43:
34:
33:
30:
19:
18:Tubular steel
3557:Metalworking
3515:Steel Links
3509:
3508:
3431:
3422:
3414:
3409:
3401:
3396:
3387:
3370:
3362:
3354:
3349:
3341:
3336:
3328:
3323:
3315:
3310:
3302:
3297:
3287:
3275:. Retrieved
3271:the original
3261:
3253:
3248:
3236:. Retrieved
3232:
3223:
3214:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3166:
3147:
3058:Unit weight
3024:Cold rolled
3004:
3000:seismic zone
2995:
2985:
2976:
2972:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2927:
2818:Application
2806:
2804:(Table E2a)
2801:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2789:
2781:Fillet Welds
2765:
2761:
2759:
2754:
2748:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2704:
2694:
2687:
2683:
2676:
2672:
1682:
1658:
1634:
1610:
1586:
1562:
1521:
1497:
1473:
1449:
1425:
1401:
1349:Cold-rolled
993:A529 Gr. 50
972:A529 Gr. 42
570:
503:
500:
452:
448:
443:
439:
436:
426:
425:
419:
418:
408:
407:
402:
401:
395:
394:
389:EU Countries
388:
387:
377:
376:
371:
370:
365:
364:
355:
354:
349:
348:
337:
336:
330:
329:
323:
322:
308:
307:
293:
292:
282:
281:
268:
252:
249:
238:
204:
197:
184:
171:roll forming
160:
144:
131:
127:
104:cold-working
99:
95:
94:
79:
70:
46:
29:
3051:29,500 ksi
3048:29,000 ksi
3021:Hot rolled
2911:CFS to CFS
2895:CFS to CFS
2879:CFS to CFS
2745:Weldability
2446:50 Class 3
2425:50 Class 1
1895:50 Class 3
1874:50 Class 1
542:CFS purlins
530:CFS Decking
427:New Zealand
350:Philippines
3546:Categories
3197:References
3095:Main uses
3071:Ductility
163:grain bins
3277:13 August
3238:28 August
3157:ductility
3149:Annealing
2831:Electrode
2706:Ductility
420:Australia
338:Argentina
261:website.
61:talk page
3121:Economy
2960:headers.
2922:33 mils
2345:A875 SS
2301:Gr. 50A
1794:A653 SS
592:Fu / Fy
583:Product
378:Malaysia
289:Americas
283:Ethiopia
167:drainage
116:stamping
112:pressing
55:You may
3404:ā, 2001
3082:Design
2860:CFS to
2841:CFS to
2833:method
2751:Welding
2404:Gr. 40
2383:Gr. 37
2362:Gr. 33
2280:Gr. 40
2259:Gr. 37
2238:Gr. 33
2199:Gr. 80
2178:Gr. 70
2157:Gr. 60
2136:Gr. 50
1853:Gr. 40
1832:Gr. 37
1811:Gr. 33
1239:Gr. 65
1218:Gr. 60
1197:Gr. 50
1176:Gr. 42
1137:Gr. 50
1116:Gr. 45
1095:Gr. 40
1074:Gr. 36
1053:Gr. 33
1032:Gr. 30
1001:70-100
415:Oceania
396:Germany
301:and/or
181:History
120:bending
108:rolling
2992:joists
2727:coupon
2719:Errera
2717:, and
2715:Winter
2711:Dhalla
1667:Gr.70
1643:Gr.65
1619:Gr.60
1595:Gr.55
1571:Gr.50
1547:Gr.45
1506:Gr.70
1482:Gr.65
1458:Gr.60
1434:Gr.55
1410:Gr.50
1386:Gr.45
980:60-85
756:60-80
735:55-75
714:50-65
693:45-60
611:58-80
384:Europe
324:Brazil
309:Canada
278:Africa
2988:studs
2659:1.13
2638:1.14
2617:1.17
2596:1.20
2558:1.13
2537:1.14
2516:1.17
2495:1.20
2457:1.40
2436:1.30
2415:1.38
2394:1.41
2373:1.36
2334:1.40
2323:A847
2312:1.30
2291:1.38
2270:1.41
2249:1.36
2221:A792
2210:1.13
2189:1.14
2168:1.17
2147:1.20
2119:A715
2108:1.13
2087:1.14
2066:1.17
2045:1.20
2007:1.13
1986:1.14
1965:1.17
1944:1.20
1906:1.40
1885:1.30
1864:1.38
1843:1.41
1822:1.36
1783:1.30
1762:1.45
1741:1.50
1720:1.68
1692:A611
1678:1.14
1654:1.15
1630:1.17
1606:1.18
1582:1.20
1558:1.22
1517:1.21
1493:1.23
1469:1.25
1445:1.27
1421:1.30
1397:1.33
1358:1.44
1337:1.44
1316:1.44
1295:1.40
1283:A606
1272:1.40
1261:A588
1250:1.23
1229:1.25
1208:1.30
1187:1.43
1159:A572
1148:1.30
1127:1.33
1106:1.38
1085:1.47
1064:1.58
1043:1.63
1015:A570
1004:1.40
983:1.43
961:1.61
940:1.24
919:1.26
898:1.15
862:1.61
841:1.35
820:1.38
799:1.36
770:A500
759:1.82
738:1.83
717:1.85
696:1.88
668:A283
657:1.46
646:A242
614:1.61
403:Italy
372:Japan
366:China
356:India
331:Chile
63:, or
3522:SFIA
3279:2009
3240:2018
2822:Shop
635:1.4
624:A36
603:A36
345:Asia
303:NFPA
245:ANSI
229:and
188:P.E.
138:and
124:bars
2824:or
2721:at
2662:12
2656:90
2653:80
2648:80
2641:14
2635:80
2632:70
2627:70
2620:18
2614:70
2611:60
2606:60
2599:22
2593:60
2590:50
2585:50
2561:10
2555:90
2552:80
2547:80
2540:12
2534:80
2531:70
2526:70
2519:16
2513:70
2510:60
2505:60
2498:20
2492:60
2489:50
2484:50
2460:12
2454:70
2451:50
2439:12
2433:65
2430:50
2418:16
2412:55
2409:40
2397:18
2391:52
2388:37
2376:20
2370:45
2367:33
2337:19
2331:70
2328:50
2315:12
2309:65
2306:50
2294:16
2288:55
2285:40
2273:18
2267:52
2264:37
2252:20
2246:45
2243:33
2213:12
2207:90
2204:80
2192:14
2186:80
2183:70
2171:18
2165:70
2162:60
2150:22
2144:60
2141:50
2111:12
2105:90
2102:80
2097:80
2090:14
2084:80
2081:70
2076:70
2069:18
2063:70
2060:60
2055:60
2048:22
2042:60
2039:50
2034:50
2010:10
2004:90
2001:80
1996:80
1989:12
1983:80
1980:70
1975:70
1968:16
1962:70
1959:60
1954:60
1947:20
1941:60
1938:50
1933:50
1909:12
1903:70
1900:50
1888:12
1882:65
1879:50
1867:16
1861:55
1858:40
1846:18
1840:52
1837:37
1825:20
1819:45
1816:33
1786:20
1780:52
1777:40
1765:22
1759:48
1756:33
1744:24
1738:45
1735:30
1723:26
1717:42
1714:25
1675:80
1672:70
1651:75
1648:65
1627:70
1624:60
1603:65
1600:55
1579:60
1576:50
1555:55
1552:45
1514:85
1511:70
1490:80
1487:65
1466:75
1463:60
1442:70
1439:55
1418:65
1415:50
1394:60
1391:45
1361:22
1355:65
1352:45
1340:22
1334:65
1331:45
1319:22
1313:65
1310:45
1298:22
1292:70
1289:50
1275:21
1269:70
1266:50
1253:17
1247:80
1244:65
1232:18
1226:75
1223:60
1211:21
1205:65
1202:50
1190:24
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