Thermophotovoltaic energy conversion

1061:(InGaAs) is a compound III-V semiconductor. It can be applied in two ways for use in TPVs. When lattice-matched to an InP substrate, InGaAs has a bandgap of 0.74 eV, no better than GaSb. Devices of this configuration have been produced with a fill factor of 69% and an efficiency of 15%. However, to absorb higher wavelength photons, the bandgap may be engineered by changing the ratio of In to Ga. The range of bandgaps for this system is from about 0.4 to 1.4 eV. However, these different structures cause strain with the InP substrate. This can be controlled with graded layers of InGaAs with different compositions. This was done to develop of device with a quantum efficiency of 68% and a fill factor of 68%, grown by MBE. This device had a bandgap of 0.55 eV, achieved in the compound In 467:, though in reality the photovoltaic inefficiency is quite significant. In real devices, as of 2021, the maximum demonstrated efficiency in the laboratory was 35% with an emitter temperature of 1,773 K. This is the efficiency in terms of heat input being converted to electrical power. In complete TPV systems, a necessarily lower total system efficiency may be cited including the source of heat, so for example, fuel-based TPV systems may report efficiencies in terms of fuel-energy to electrical energy, in which case 5% is considered a "world record" level of efficiency. Real-world efficiencies are reduced by such effects as heat transfer losses, electrical conversion efficiency (TPV voltage outputs are often quite low), and losses due to active cooling of the PV cell. 1216:(CHP). Many TPV CHP scenarios have been theorized, but a study found that generator using boiling coolant was most cost efficient. The proposed CHP would utilize a SiC IR emitter operating at 1425 °C and GaSb photocells cooled by boiling coolant. The TPV CHP would output 85,000 BTU/hr (25kW of heat) and generate 1.5 kW. The estimated efficiency would be 12.3% (?)(1.5kW/25kW = 0.06 = 6%) requiring investment or 0.08 €/kWh assuming a 20 year lifetime. The estimated cost of other non-TPV CHPs are 0.12 €/kWh for gas engine CHP and 0.16 €/kWh for fuel cell CHP. This furnace was not commercialized because the market was not thought to be large enough. 225:. While one can make a practical solar cell with a single bandgap tuned to the peak of the spectrum and just ignore the losses in the IR region, doing the same with a lower temperature source will lose much more of the potential energy and result in very low overall efficiency. This means TPV systems almost always use multi-junction cells in order to reach reasonable double-digit efficiencies. Current research in the area aims at increasing system efficiencies while keeping the system cost low, but even then their roles tend to be niches similar to those of multi-junction solar cells. 798:(SiC) is the most commonly used emitter for burner TPVs. SiC is thermally stable to ~1700 °C. However, SiC radiates much of its energy in the long wavelength regime, far lower in energy than even the narrowest bandgap photovoltaic. Such radiation is not converted into electrical energy. However, non-absorbing selective filters in front of the PV, or mirrors deposited on the back side of the PV can be used to reflect the long wavelengths back to the emitter, thereby recycling the unconverted energy. In addition, polycrystalline SiC is inexpensive. 902:(PBG). In the spectral range of the PBG, electromagnetic waves cannot propagate. Engineering these materials allows some ability to tailor their emission and absorption properties, allowing for more effective emitter design. Selective emitters with peaks at higher energy than the black body peak (for practical TPV temperatures) allow for wider bandgap converters. These converters are traditionally cheaper to manufacture and less temperature sensitive. Researchers at 3499: 2453: 1042:(IQE) of these devices approach 90%, while devices grown by the other two techniques exceed 95%. The largest problem with InGaAsSb cells is phase separation. Compositional inconsistencies throughout the device degrade its performance. When phase separation can be avoided, the IQE and fill factor of InGaAsSb approach theoretical limits in wavelength ranges near the bandgap energy. However, the V 2467: 878:, for GaSb or InGaAs. However, the slight mismatch between the emission peaks and band gap of the absorber costs significant efficiency. Selective emission only becomes significant at 1100 °C and increases with temperature. Below 1700 °C, selective emission of rare-earth oxides is fairly low, further decreasing efficiency. Currently, 13% efficiency has been achieved with Yb 3511: 1138:. This prototype utilized an SiC emitter operating at 1250 °C and GaSb photocells and was approximately 0.5 m tall. The power source had an efficiency of 2.5%, calculated as the ratio of the power generated to the thermal energy of the fuel burned. This is too low for practical battlefield use. No portable TPV power sources have reached troop testing. 182: 1175:

have been deemed too unreliable, despite conversion efficiencies >20%. However, with the recent advances in small-bandgap PVs, TPVs are becoming more promising. A TPV radioisotope converter with 20% efficiency was demonstrated that uses a tungsten emitter heated to 1350 K, with tandem filters

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Early TPV work focused on the use of silicon. Silicon's commercial availability, low cost, scalability and ease of manufacture makes this material an appealing candidate. However, the relatively wide bandgap of Si (1.1eV) is not ideal for use with a black body emitter at lower operating temperatures.

846:) are the most commonly used selective emitters. These oxides emit a narrow band of wavelengths in the near-infrared region, allowing the emission spectra to be tailored to better fit the absorbance characteristics of a particular PV material. The peak of the emission spectrum occurs at 1.29 eV for Yb 513:

at the PV surface, optimal-wavelength light that passes through the cell unabsorbed, and the energy difference between higher-energy photons and the bandgap energy (though this tends to be less significant than with solar PVs). Non-radiative recombination losses tend to become less significant as the

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Photons with less energy than the bandgap do not eject electrons. Photons with energy above the bandgap will eject higher-energy electrons which tend to thermalize within the material and lose their extra energy as heat. If the cell's bandgap is raised, the electrons that are emitted will have higher

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that can be used as a selective emitter. It has higher emissivity in the visible and near-IR range of 0.45 to 0.47 and a low emissivity of 0.1 to 0.2 in the IR region. The emitter is usually in the shape of a cylinder with a sealed bottom, which can be considered a cavity. The emitter is attached to

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The same process of photoemission can be used to produce electricity from any spectrum, although the number of semiconductor materials that will have just the right bandgap for an arbitrary hot object is limited. Instead, semiconductors that have tuneable bandgaps are needed. It is also difficult to

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TPVs have been proposed for use in recreational vehicles. Their ability to use multiple fuel sources makes them interesting as more sustainable fuels emerge. TPVs silent operation allows them to replace noisy conventional generators (i.e. during "quiet hours" in national park campgrounds). However,

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In an ideal system, the emitter is surrounded by converters so no light is lost. Realistically, geometries must accommodate the input energy (fuel injection or input light) used to heat the emitter. Additionally, costs have prohibited surrounding the filter with converters. When the emitter reemits

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For black body emitters or imperfect selective emitters, filters reflect non-ideal wavelengths back to the emitter. These filters are imperfect. Any light that is absorbed or scattered and not redirected to the emitter or the converter is lost, generally as heat. Conversely, practical filters often

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In 2024, researchers announced a device that achieved 44% efficiency, The cell used silicon carbide as the heat-storage material. SiC was enveloped a semiconductor material made of indium, gallium and arsenic. At 1,435 °C (2,615 °F) the device radiates thermal photons at various energy levels. The

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emissions and are virtually silent. Solar TPVs are a source of emission-free renewable energy. TPVs can be more efficient than PV systems owing to recycling of unabsorbed photons. However, losses at each energy conversion step lower efficiency. When TPVs are used with a burner source, they provide

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PbSnSe/PbSrSe quantum well materials, which can be grown by MBE on silicon substrates, have been proposed for low cost TPV device fabrication. These IV-VI semiconductor materials can have bandgaps between 0.3 and 0.6 eV. Their symmetric band structure and lack of valence band degeneracy result in

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Low-temperature operation of the converter is critical to the efficiency of TPV. Heating PV converters increases their dark current, thereby reducing efficiency. The converter is heated by the radiation from the emitter. In terrestrial systems it is reasonable to dissipate this heat without using

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Using selective radiators with Si PVs is still a possibility. Selective radiators would eliminate high and low energy photons, reducing heat generated. Ideally, selective radiators would emit no radiation beyond the band edge of the PV converter, increasing conversion efficiency significantly. No

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or an energy of ~0.75 eV. For more reasonable operating temperatures of 1200 °C, this drops to ~0.5 eV. These energies dictate the range of bandgaps that are needed for practical TPV converters (though the peak spectral power is slightly higher). Traditional PV materials such as Si

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This means that all of the energy in the infrared and lower, about half of AM1.5, goes to waste. There has been continuing research into cells that are made of several different layers, each with a different bandgap, and thus tuned to a different part of the solar spectrum. As of 2022, cells with

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Deviations from perfect absorption and perfect black body behavior lead to light losses. For selective emitters, any light emitted at wavelengths not matched to the bandgap energy of the photovoltaic may not be efficiently converted, reducing efficiency. In particular, emissions associated with

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This contrasts with a somewhat related concept, the "thermoradiative" or "negative emission" cells, in which the photodiode is on the hot side of the heat engine. Systems have also been proposed that use a thermoradiative device as an emitter in a TPV system, theoretically allowing power to be

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TPV systems generally consist of a heat source, an emitter, and a waste heat rejection system. The TPV cells are placed between the emitter, often a block of metal or similar, and the cooling system, often a passive radiator. PV systems in general operate at lower efficiency as the temperature

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Efficiency, temperature resistance and cost are the three major factors for choosing a TPV emitter. Efficiency is determined by energy absorbed relative to incoming radiation. High temperature operation is crucial because efficiency increases with operating temperature. As emitter temperature

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allows for a narrower bandgap (0.5 to 0.6 eV), and therefore better absorption of long wavelengths. Specifically, the bandgap was engineered to 0.55 eV. With this bandgap, the compound achieved a photon-weighted internal quantum efficiency of 79% with a fill factor of 65% for a black body at

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crystal structure. The GaSb cell is a key development owing to its narrow bandgap of 0.72 eV. This allows GaSb to respond to light at longer wavelengths than silicon solar cell, enabling higher power densities in conjunction with manmade emission sources. A solar cell with 35% efficiency was

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fuels (extremely high power density and long lifetime) are ideal. TPVs have been proposed for each. In the case of solar energy, orbital spacecraft may be better locations for the large and potentially cumbersome concentrators required for practical TPVs. However, weight considerations and

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The InPAsSb quaternary alloy has been grown by both OMVPE and LPE. When lattice-matched to InAs, it has a bandgap in the range 0.3–0.55 eV. The benefits of such a low band gap have not been studied in depth. Therefore, cells incorporating InPAsSb have not been optimized and do not yet have

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Battlefield dynamics require portable power. Conventional diesel generators are too heavy for use in the field. Scalability allows TPVs to be smaller and lighter than conventional generators. Also, TPVs have few emissions and are silent. Multifuel operation is another potential benefit.

296:. The material is surrounded by TPV cells which are in turn backed by a reflector and insulation. During storage, the TPV cells are turned off and the photons pass through them and reflect back into the high-temperature source. When power is needed, the TPV is connected to a load. 68:

As TPV systems generally work at lower temperatures than solar cells, their efficiencies tend to be low. Offsetting this through the use of multi-junction cells based on non-silicon materials is common, but generally very expensive. This currently limits TPV to niche roles like

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of heat and power. In cold climates, it can function as both a heater/stove and a power generator. JX Crystals developed a prototype TPV heating stove/generator that burns natural gas and uses a SiC source emitter operating at 1250 °C and GaSb photocell to output 25,000

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reflect a small percentage of light in desired wavelength ranges. Both are inefficiencies. The absorption of suboptimal wavelengths by the photovoltaic device also contributes inefficiency and has the added effect of heating it, which also decreases efficiency.

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the back of a thermal absorber such as SiC and maintains the same temperature. Emission occurs in the visible and near IR range, which can be readily converted by the PV to electrical energy. However, compared to other metals, tungsten oxidizes more easily.

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Calculations indicate that Si PVs are only feasible at temperatures much higher than 2000 K. No emitter has been demonstrated that can operate at these temperatures. These engineering difficulties led to the pursuit of lower-bandgap semiconductor PVs.

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competitive performance. The longest spectral response from an InPAsSb cell studied was 4.3 μm with a maximum response at 3 μm. For this and other low-bandgap materials, high IQE for long wavelengths is hard to achieve due to an increase in

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and silicon PV cells. In general selective emitters have had limited success. More often filters are used with black body emitters to pass wavelengths matched to the bandgap of the PV and reflect mismatched wavelengths back to the emitter.

484:, which cannot be practically converted. An ideal emitter would emit no light at wavelengths other than at the bandgap energy, and much TPV research is devoted to developing emitters that better approximate this narrow emission spectrum. 906:

predicted a high-efficiency (34% of light emitted converted to electricity) based on TPV emitter demonstrated using tungsten photonic crystals. However, manufacturing of these devices is difficult and not commercially feasible.

1150:. Graphite may be used as a storage medium, with molten tin as heat transfer, at temperatures around 2000°. See LaPotin, A., Schulte, K.L., Steiner, M.A. et al. Thermophotovoltaic efficiency of 40%. Nature 604, 287–291 (2022). 348:

layers tuned to absorb variously, ultraviolet, visible, and infrared photons. A gold reflector recycled unabsorbed photons. The device operated at 2400 °C, at which temperature the tungsten emitter reaches maximum brightness.

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The output of isotopes is thermal energy. In the past thermoelectricity (direct thermal to electrical conversion with no moving parts) has been used because TPV efficiency is less than the ~10% of thermoelectric converters.

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As. It is a well-developed material. InGaAs can be made to lattice match perfectly with Ge resulting in low defect densities. Ge as a substrate is a significant advantage over more expensive or harder-to-produce substrates.

259:. Thermocouples are very inefficient and their replacement with TPV could offer significant improvements in efficiency and thus require a smaller and lighter RTG for any given mission. Experimental systems developed by 1129:

Investigations in the 1970s failed due to PV limitations. However, the GaSb photocell led to a renewed effort in the 1990s with improved results. In early 2001, JX Crystals delivered a TPV based battery charger to the

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GaSb wafers are commercially available. Vapor-based zinc diffusion is carried out at elevated temperatures (~450 °C) to allow for p-type doping. Front and back electrical contacts are patterned using traditional

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techniques and an anti-reflective coating is deposited. Efficiencies are estimated at ~20% using a 1000 °C black body spectrum. The radiative limit for efficiency of the GaSb cell in this setup is 52%.

1184:. However, space is an isolated system, where heat sinks are impractical. Therefore, it is critical to develop innovative solutions to efficiently remove that heat. Both represent substantial challenges. 1176:

and a 0.6 eV bandgap InGaAs PV converter (cooled to room temperature). About 30% of the lost energy was due to the optical cavity and filters. The remainder was due to the efficiency of the PV converter.

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Another area of active research is using TPV as the basis of a thermal storage system. In this concept, electricity being generated in off-peak times is used to heat a large block of material, typically

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TPVs can provide continuous power to off-grid homes. Traditional PVs do not provide power during winter months and nighttime, while TPVs can utilize alternative fuels to augment solar-only production.

755: 772:(1.1 eV) and GaAs (1.4 eV) are substantially less practical for TPV systems, as the intensity of the black body spectrum is low at these energies for emitters at realistic temperatures. 2023:

Fraas, L.M.; Avery, J.E.; Sundaram, V.S.; Dinh, V.T.; Davenport, T.M. & Yerkes, J.W. (1990). "Over 35% efficient GaAs/GaSb stacked concentrator cell assemblies for terrestrial applications".

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TPVs promise efficient and economically viable power systems for both military and commercial applications. Compared to traditional nonrenewable energy sources, burner TPVs have little

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Higher temperature spectrums not only have more energy in total, but also have that energy in a more concentrated peak. Low-temperature sources, the lower line being close to that of a

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is the emitter temperature. Thus, the light flux with wavelengths in a specific range can be found by integrating over the range. The peak wavelength is determined by the temperature,

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light, anything that does not travel to the converters is lost. Mirrors can be used to redirect some of this light back to the emitter; however, the mirrors may have their own losses.

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TPV cells have been proposed as auxiliary power conversion devices for capture of otherwise lost heat in other power generation systems, such as steam turbine systems or solar cells.

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is Wien's displacement constant. For most materials, the maximum temperature an emitter can stably operate at is about 1800 °C. This corresponds to an intensity that peaks at

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overall efficiencies in the range of 40% are commercially available, although they are extremely expensive and have not seen widespread use outside of specific roles like powering

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Charache, G. W.; Egley, J. L.; Depoy, D. M.; Danielson, L. R.; Freeman, M. J.; Dziendziel, R. J.; et al. (1998). "Infrared Materials for Thermophotovoltaic Applications".

544: 1276: 463:= ~1800 K, giving a maximum possible efficiency of ~83%. This assumes the PV converts the radiation into electrical energy without losses, such as thermalization or 945:, Ge's high electron effective mass leads to a high density of states in the conduction band and therefore a high intrinsic carrier concentration. As a result, Ge 937:(Ge). Ge has a bandgap of 0.66 eV, allowing for conversion of a much higher fraction of incoming radiation. However, poor performance was observed due to the high 3404: 3081: 1146:

Converting spare electricity into heat for high-volume, long-term storage is under research at various companies, who claim that costs could be much lower than

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may not be needed. In addition, owing to the PV's proximity to the radiative source, TPVs can generate current densities 300 times that of conventional PVs.

2886: 2759: 255:(RTGs) used to power spacecraft use a radioactive material whose radiation is used to heat a block of material and then converted to electricity using a 1657: 514:

light intensity increases, while they increase with increasing temperature, so real systems must consider the intensity produced by a given design and

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In 1997 a prototype TPV hybrid car was built, the "Viking 29" (TPV) powered automobile, designed and built by the Vehicle Research Institute (VRI) at

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Palfinger, G.; Bitnar, B.; Durisch, W.; Mayor, J. C.; Grützmacher, D. & Gobrecht, J. (2003). "Cost estimate of electricity produced by TPV".

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low Auger recombination rates, typically more than an order of magnitude smaller than those of comparable bandgap III-V semiconductor materials.

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have fast decaying "dark" current and therefore, a low open-circuit voltage. In addition, surface passivation of germanium has proven difficult.

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is widely cited as the inventor based on lectures he gave at MIT between 1960–1961 which, unlike Kolm's system, led to research and development.

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patterned on the surface. Connecting a wire from the front to the rear allows the electrons to flow back into the bulk and complete the circuit.

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around 900 °C to about 1300 °C. This further limits the suitable materials. In the case of TPV most research has focused on

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Anderson, David; Wong, Wayne; Tuttle, Karen (2005). "An Overview and Status of NASA's Radioisotope Power Conversion Technology NRA".

3370: 3305: 3247: 2744: 130:, but this will reduce the number of electrons emitted as more photons will be below the bandgap energy and thus generate a lower 3375: 3138: 2619: 1338: 501:

Even for systems where only light of optimal wavelengths is passed to the photovoltaic converter, inefficiencies associated with

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Space power generation systems must provide consistent and reliable power without large amounts of fuel. As a result, solar and

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Teofilo, V. L.; Choong, P.; Chang, J.; Tseng, Y. L. & Ermer, S. (2008). "Thermophotovoltaic Energy Conversion for Space".

961:(GaSb) PV cell, invented in 1989, is the basis of most PV cells in modern TPV systems. GaSb is a III-V semiconductor with the 786:

increases, black-body radiation shifts to shorter wavelengths, allowing for more efficient absorption by photovoltaic cells.

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Wilt, D.; Chubb, D.; Wolford, D.; Magari, P. & Crowley, C. (2007). "Thermophotovoltaics for Space Power Applications".

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Horne E. (2002). Hybrid thermophotovoltaic power systems. Final report by EDTEK Inc. for the California energy commission.

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Guazzoni, G. & Matthews, S. (2004). "A Retrospective of Four Decades of Military Interest in Thermophotovoltaics".

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inefficiencies associated with the more complicated design of TPVs, protected conventional PVs continue to dominate.

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ratio is far from the ideal. Current methods to manufacture InGaAsSb PVs are expensive and not commercially viable.

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that accelerates the electron forward within the cell until it passes the junction and is free to move to the thin

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semiconductor captures 20 to 30% of the photons. Additional layers include air and a gold reflector layer.

3537: 3503: 3345: 3315: 3280: 3267: 3153: 2928: 2729: 2719: 2614: 2503: 1031: 157:. Based on this temperature, energy production is maximized when the bandgap is about 1.4 eV, in the 1390:"A comparatively experimental study on the temperature-dependent performance of thermophotovoltaic cells" 189:, spread out their energy much more widely. Efficiently collecting this energy demands multi-layer cells. 3320: 3310: 3290: 3143: 2966: 2769: 2572: 2567: 1147: 967: 515: 293: 276: 272: 652:{\displaystyle I'(\lambda ,T)={\frac {2hc^{2}}{\lambda ^{5}}}{\frac {1}{e^{\frac {hc}{\lambda kT}}-1}}} 3355: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3300: 3295: 2810: 2739: 2584: 2552: 2422: 2379: 2344: 2276: 2239: 2200: 2157: 2101: 2063: 1994: 1938: 1891: 1709:"Viking 29 - A Thermophotovoltaic Hybrid Vehicle Designed and Built at Western Washington University" 1616: 1519: 1451: 1401: 1206: 1035: 981: 942: 221:

Another problem with lower-temperature sources is that their energy is more spread out, according to

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is the product of voltage and current, there is a sweet spot where the total output is maximized.

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The upper limit for efficiency in TPVs (and all systems that convert heat energy to work) is the

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of 5780 K. At this temperature, about half of all the energy reaching the surface is in the

131: 1927:"Material candidates for thermally robust applications of selective thermophotovoltaic emitters" 1790:"Platform for Accurate Efficiency Quantification of > 35% Efficient Thermophotovoltaic Cells" 1442:

Strandberg, Rune (2015). "Theoretical efficiency limits for thermoradiative energy conversion".

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the emitter temperatures required for practical efficiencies make TPVs on this scale unlikely.

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Karlina, L.B.; Kulagina, M.M.; Timoshina, N.Kh.; Vlasov, A.S. & Andreev, V.M. (2007). "In

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Malyshev, V. I. (1979). Introduction to Experimental Spectroscopy (in Russian) Nauka, Moscow.

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allow precise control of electromagnetic wave properties. These materials give rise to the

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increases, and in TPV systems, keeping the photovoltaic cool is a significant challenge.

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As/InP conventional and inverted thermophotovoltaic cells with back surface reflector".

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Algora, C. & Martin, D. (2003). "Modelling and Manufacturing GaSb TPV Converters".

1109: 320: 115: 1983:"Three-dimensional photonic-crystal emitter for thermal photovoltaic power generation" 1950: 1658:"'Thermal batteries' could efficiently store wind and solar power in a renewable grid" 1389: 1342: 3531: 3112: 3035: 3025: 2938: 2830: 2547: 2526: 2472: 2399: 2391: 2343:. Seventh World Conference on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity: 335–345. 2199:. Seventh World Conference on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity: 182–189. 2040: 1958: 1911: 1903: 1876: 1819: 1638: 1629: 1604: 1421: 1363: 506: 464: 186: 158: 106:

energy of the material hit atoms within the bulk lower layer, below the junction, an

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Wang, C.A. (2004). "Antimony-based III-V thermophotovoltaic materials and devices".

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is about 3400 K (~3126 °C), and more common commercial heat sources like

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Oh, Minsu; McElearney, John; Lemire, Amanda; Vandervelde, Thomas E. (2022-11-07).

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New thermophotovoltaic materials could replace alternators in cars and save fuel

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Coutts, T. J. (1997). "Thermophotovoltaic principles, potential, and problems".

962: 371: 207: 203: 149:, or AM1.5. This is very close to 1,000 W of energy per square meter at an 42: 1789: 1507: 279:

which reached 30% efficiency, a 3 to 4-fold improvement over existing systems.

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6th International Conference on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity

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For black body emitters where photon recirculation is achieved via filters,

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demonstrated 15 to 20% efficiency. A similar concept was developed by the

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is the temperature of the PV converter. Practical systems can achieve T

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announced a device with 41% efficiency. The absorber employed multiple

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1997 SAE Future Transportation Technology Conference and Exposition

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1100 °C. This was for a device grown on a GaSb substrate by

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demonstrated using a bilayer PV with GaAs and GaSb, setting the

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Early investigations into low bandgap semiconductors focused on

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energy when they reach the junction and thus result in a higher

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states that a black body emits light with a spectrum given by:

165:, at 1.1 eV, which makes solar PV inexpensive to produce. 1101: 480:

resonances are difficult to avoid for wavelengths in the deep

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Direct conversion process from heat to electricity via photons

161:. This just happens to be very close to the bandgap in doped 238:

extracted from both a hot photodiode and a cold photodiode.

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NASA Radioisotope Power Conversion Technology NRA Overview

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3rd International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference

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2021 IEEE 48th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC)

750:{\displaystyle \lambda _{\mathrm {max} }={\frac {b}{T}},} 870:

can be used a selective emitter for silicon cells and Er

1087:

Lead tin selenide/Lead strontium selenide quantum wells

1845:

Argonne National Laboratory Chain Reaction Innovations

114:

and becomes free of its atom. The junction creates an

2226:

M. Khodr; M. Chakraburtty & P. J. McCann (2019).

712: 547: 383: 1981:

Lin, S. Y.; Moreno, J. & Fleming, J. G. (2003).

441:{\displaystyle \eta =1-{\frac {T_{cell}}{T_{emit}}}} 3413: 3397: 3388: 3266: 3235: 3212: 3201: 3121: 3105: 3059: 3018: 2916: 2909: 2854: 2783: 2710: 2699: 2674: 2628: 2540: 2533: 1605:"A brief history of thermophotovoltaic development" 749: 651: 440: 145:is typically characterized by a standard known as 173:, where cost is not a significant consideration. 1368:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology 925:efficient TPVs have been realized using Si PVs. 263:(a multi-junction solar cell provider), Creare, 973:Manufacturing a GaSb PV cell is quite simple. 665:′ is the light flux of a specific wavelength, 3405:List of countries by photovoltaics production 3082:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One 2511: 1841:"Portable thermophotovoltaic power generator" 1212:Combining a heater and a generator is called 1200:The greatest advantage for TPV generators is 326:In the 1980s, efficiency reached around 30%. 8: 1317:"Multijunction III-V Photovoltaics Research" 41:is a direct conversion process from heat to 2887:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 2087: 2085: 2025:IEEE Conference on Photovoltaic Specialists 1707:Christ, Steve; Seal, Michael (1997-08-06). 3394: 3209: 2913: 2760:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 2707: 2537: 2518: 2504: 2496: 2300: 2298: 2251: 1628: 1577: 1471: 1292: 1290: 776:Active components and materials selection 734: 718: 717: 711: 616: 606: 598: 587: 574: 546: 421: 402: 396: 382: 94:Typical photovoltaics work by creating a 3222:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system 2018: 2016: 315:constructed an elementary TPV system at 3189:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge 3184:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge 2330: 2328: 2143: 2141: 2139: 1233: 1332: 1330: 253:radioisotope thermoelectric generators 194:produce solar-like thermal output; an 1652: 1650: 1648: 1512:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 7: 3510: 2372:Semiconductor Science and Technology 1884:Semiconductor Science and Technology 1788:Narayan, Tarun; et al. (2021). 1609:Semiconductor Science and Technology 1508:"Thermoradiative–Photovoltaic Cells" 1152:Thermophotovoltaic efficiency of 40% 1074:Indium phosphide arsenide antimonide 1030:(OMVPE). Devices have been grown by 77:collection from larger systems like 3227:List of photovoltaic power stations 1506:Liao, Tianjun; et al. (2019). 1339:"IMEC website: Photovoltaic Stacks" 1028:organometallic vapour phase epitaxy 65:being emitted from the hot object. 3243:Rooftop photovoltaic power station 2646:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si) 2595:Third-generation photovoltaic cell 999:Indium gallium arsenide antimonide 994:Indium gallium arsenide antimonide 725: 722: 719: 509:exist. There are also losses from 25: 3248:Building-integrated photovoltaics 2745:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics 2651:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) 1951:10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.110201 1388:Zhang, Chao; et al. (2019). 1297:Zhao, Andrew (13 November 2015). 102:material. When photons above the 98:near the front surface of a thin 3509: 3498: 3497: 2620:Polarizing organic photovoltaics 2465: 2451: 669:, given in units of 1 m⋅s. 2755:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics 2636:List of semiconductor materials 2307:Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2094:Journal of Electronic Materials 1247:. Green Energy and Technology. 1108:on-demand energy. As a result, 790:Polycrystalline silicon carbide 374:. This efficiency is given by: 2867:Incremental conductance method 2661:Copper indium gallium selenide 2610:Thermodynamic efficiency limit 1802:10.1109/PVSC43889.2021.9518588 1763:Irving, Michael (2024-05-27). 1739:"Viking-Series Cars – History" 1715:. SAE Technical Paper Series. 1134:that produced 230 W fueled by 568: 556: 1: 3174:South African Solar Challenge 1847:. Argonne National Laboratory 331:Western Washington University 2821:Photovoltaic mounting system 2826:Maximum power point tracker 1487:Frost, Rosie (2020-07-02). 685:is the speed of light, and 503:non-radiative recombination 3559: 3077:Solar panels on spacecraft 2924:Solar-powered refrigerator 2882:Concentrated photovoltaics 2862:Perturb and observe method 2641:Crystalline silicon (c-Si) 2415:AIP Conference Proceedings 2392:10.1088/0268-1242/18/5/317 2337:AIP Conference Proceedings 2269:AIP Conference Proceedings 2193:AIP Conference Proceedings 2150:AIP Conference Proceedings 2056:AIP Conference Proceedings 1904:10.1088/0268-1242/18/5/312 1743:Vehicle Research Institute 1630:10.1088/0268-1242/18/5/301 1444:Journal of Applied Physics 822:Rare-earth oxides such as 3493: 2775:Heterojunction solar cell 2750:Dye-sensitized solar cell 2590:Multi-junction solar cell 2580:Nominal power (Watt-peak) 2114:10.1007/s11664-998-0160-x 1931:Physical Review Materials 1281:American Chemical Society 1253:10.1007/978-3-642-19965-3 1180:additional energy with a 1001:(InGaAsSb) is a compound 3258:Strasskirchen Solar Park 3149:American Solar Challenge 2995:Solar-powered flashlight 2982:Solar-powered calculator 2977:Solar cell phone charger 2666:Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 2033:10.1109/PVSC.1990.111616 1532:10.1109/TED.2019.2893281 1277:"How a Solar Cell Works" 3164:Frisian Solar Challenge 3134:List of solar car teams 2892:Space-based solar power 2872:Constant voltage method 2801:Solar charge controller 2687:Timeline of solar cells 2682:Growth of photovoltaics 2459:Renewable energy portal 1987:Applied Physics Letters 1214:combined heat and power 1188:Commercial applications 1059:Indium gallium arsenide 1054:Indium gallium arsenide 939:effective electron mass 701:Wien's displacement law 223:Wien's displacement law 218:(Ge) is also suitable. 3154:Formula Sun Grand Prix 2986:Solar-powered fountain 2929:Solar air conditioning 2730:Quantum dot solar cell 2720:Nanocrystal solar cell 2615:Sun-free photovoltaics 1796:. pp. 1352–1354. 1450:(5): 055105–055105.8. 1241:Bauer, Thomas (2011). 1032:molecular beam epitaxy 751: 653: 442: 283:Thermoelectric storage 190: 3144:World Solar Challenge 2967:Photovoltaic keyboard 2897:PV system performance 2770:Perovskite solar cell 2568:Solar cell efficiency 1603:Nelson, R.E. (2003). 1299:"Silicon Solar Cells" 1220:Recreational vehicles 1148:lithium-ion batteries 968:solar cell efficiency 752: 654: 516:operating temperature 443: 300:Waste heat collection 294:phase-change material 277:University of Houston 273:Glenn Research Center 184: 3414:Individual producers 3122:Solar vehicle racing 2811:Solar micro-inverter 2740:Plasmonic solar cell 2585:Thin-film solar cell 2553:Photoelectric effect 2027:. pp. 190–195. 1321:Department of Energy 1040:quantum efficiencies 1038:(LPE). The internal 1036:liquid phase epitaxy 943:III-V semiconductors 710: 545: 531:Black body radiation 381: 151:apparent temperature 3010:Solar traffic light 2990:Solar-powered radio 2957:Solar-powered watch 2765:Printed solar panel 2600:Solar cell research 2427:1997AIPC..404..217C 2384:2003SeScT..18S.254P 2349:2007AIPC..890..335W 2281:2004AIPC..738....3G 2244:2019AIPA....9c5303K 2205:2007AIPC..890..182K 2162:2004AIPC..738..255W 2106:1998JEMat..27.1038C 2068:2003AIPC..653..452A 1999:2003ApPhL..83..380L 1943:2022PhRvM...6k0201O 1896:2003SeScT..18S.221B 1875:Bitnar, B. (2003). 1621:2003SeScT..18S.141N 1570:10.2514/6.2005-5713 1524:2019ITED...66.1386L 1456:2015JAP...117e5105S 1406:2019ApPhL.114s3902Z 1303:Stanford University 1244:Thermophotovoltaics 1193:Off-grid generators 1081:Auger recombination 1003:III-V semiconductor 941:of Ge. Compared to 854:and 0.827 eV for Er 809:is the most common 511:Fresnel reflections 370:, that of an ideal 346:III-V semiconductor 206:burn at much lower 3046:The Quiet Achiever 3005:Solar street light 2952:Solar-powered pump 2725:Organic solar cell 2605:Thermophotovoltaic 2573:Quantum efficiency 1121:Man-portable power 1021:) The addition of 959:gallium antimonide 953:Gallium antimonide 911:Photovoltaic cells 747: 679:Boltzmann constant 649: 438: 319:in 1956. However, 212:gallium antimonide 196:oxyacetylene torch 191: 57:cell similar to a 31:Thermophotovoltaic 18:Thermophotovoltaic 3525: 3524: 3489: 3488: 3384: 3383: 3197: 3196: 3072:Mauro Solar Riser 3067:Electric aircraft 3000:Solar-powered fan 2905: 2904: 2796:Balance of system 2784:System components 2735:Hybrid solar cell 2695: 2694: 2656:Cadmium telluride 2357:10.1063/1.2711751 2319:10.1021/jp711315c 2313:(21): 7841–7845. 2289:10.1063/1.1841874 2253:10.1063/1.5080444 2213:10.1063/1.2711735 2170:10.1063/1.1841902 2076:10.1063/1.1539400 2007:10.1063/1.1592614 1811:978-1-6654-1922-2 1589:978-1-62410-062-8 1464:10.1063/1.4907392 1414:10.1063/1.5088791 1262:978-3-642-19964-6 896:Photonic crystals 891:Photonic crystals 862:. As a result, Yb 818:Rare-earth oxides 742: 647: 637: 604: 436: 368:Carnot efficiency 214:(GaSb), although 61:but tuned to the 51:thermal radiation 39:energy conversion 16:(Redirected from 3550: 3513: 3512: 3501: 3500: 3395: 3236:Building-mounted 3214:PV power station 3210: 3139:Solar challenges 3129:Solar car racing 3097:Solar Challenger 3087:Gossamer Penguin 2914: 2708: 2558:Solar irradiance 2538: 2520: 2513: 2506: 2497: 2475: 2470: 2469: 2461: 2456: 2455: 2439: 2438: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2378:(5): S254–S261. 2367: 2361: 2360: 2332: 2323: 2322: 2302: 2293: 2292: 2264: 2258: 2257: 2255: 2223: 2217: 2216: 2180: 2174: 2173: 2145: 2134: 2133: 2089: 2080: 2079: 2051: 2045: 2044: 2020: 2011: 2010: 1978: 1972: 1969: 1963: 1962: 1922: 1916: 1915: 1890:(5): S221–S227. 1881: 1872: 1866: 1863: 1857: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1837: 1831: 1830: 1828: 1826: 1785: 1779: 1778: 1776: 1775: 1760: 1754: 1753: 1751: 1750: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1704: 1698: 1697: 1695: 1694: 1685:. Archived from 1678: 1672: 1671: 1669: 1668: 1654: 1643: 1642: 1632: 1615:(5): S141–S143. 1600: 1594: 1593: 1581: 1579:2060/20050244468 1557: 1551: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1518:(3): 1386–1389. 1503: 1497: 1496: 1484: 1478: 1477: 1475: 1439: 1433: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1394:Appl. Phys. Lett 1385: 1379: 1378: 1376: 1375: 1360: 1354: 1353: 1351: 1350: 1341:. Archived from 1337:Poortmans, Jef. 1334: 1325: 1324: 1313: 1307: 1306: 1294: 1285: 1284: 1273: 1267: 1266: 1238: 1173:Stirling engines 987:photolithography 900:photonic bandgap 811:refractory metal 794:Polycrystalline 770: 756: 754: 753: 748: 743: 735: 730: 729: 728: 658: 656: 655: 650: 648: 646: 639: 638: 636: 625: 617: 607: 605: 603: 602: 593: 592: 591: 575: 555: 447: 445: 444: 439: 437: 435: 434: 416: 415: 397: 136:electrical power 21: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3548: 3547: 3528: 3527: 3526: 3521: 3485: 3409: 3380: 3262: 3231: 3204: 3193: 3117: 3106:Water transport 3101: 3055: 3041:Solar golf cart 3014: 2972:Solar road stud 2901: 2855:System concepts 2850: 2779: 2702: 2691: 2670: 2624: 2529: 2524: 2471: 2464: 2457: 2450: 2447: 2442: 2435:10.1063/1.53449 2412: 2411: 2407: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2334: 2333: 2326: 2304: 2303: 2296: 2266: 2265: 2261: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2181: 2177: 2147: 2146: 2137: 2091: 2090: 2083: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2022: 2021: 2014: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1924: 1923: 1919: 1879: 1874: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1860: 1850: 1848: 1839: 1838: 1834: 1824: 1822: 1812: 1787: 1786: 1782: 1773: 1771: 1762: 1761: 1757: 1748: 1746: 1737: 1736: 1732: 1706: 1705: 1701: 1692: 1690: 1680: 1679: 1675: 1666: 1664: 1662:www.science.org 1656: 1655: 1646: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1590: 1559: 1558: 1554: 1544: 1542: 1505: 1504: 1500: 1486: 1485: 1481: 1441: 1440: 1436: 1426: 1424: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1373: 1371: 1370:. 13 April 2022 1362: 1361: 1357: 1348: 1346: 1336: 1335: 1328: 1315: 1314: 1310: 1296: 1295: 1288: 1275: 1274: 1270: 1263: 1240: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1222: 1195: 1190: 1160: 1144: 1123: 1118: 1105: 1098: 1089: 1076: 1068: 1064: 1056: 1049: 1045: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 996: 955: 931: 918: 913: 893: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 833: 829: 820: 804: 796:silicon carbide 792: 783: 778: 765: 713: 708: 707: 698: 691: 675:Planck constant 626: 618: 612: 611: 594: 583: 576: 548: 543: 542: 533: 524: 499: 490: 473: 462: 458: 454: 417: 398: 379: 378: 364: 359: 310: 302: 285: 249: 244: 231: 179: 143:solar radiation 92: 87: 85:General concept 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3556: 3554: 3546: 3545: 3543:Thermodynamics 3540: 3530: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3520: 3519: 3507: 3494: 3491: 3490: 3487: 3486: 3484: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3451:Solar Frontier 3448: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3426:Hanwha Q CELLS 3423: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3410: 3408: 3407: 3401: 3399: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3371:United Kingdom 3368: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3306:Czech Republic 3303: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3272: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3261: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3239: 3237: 3233: 3232: 3230: 3229: 3224: 3218: 3216: 3207: 3199: 3198: 3195: 3194: 3192: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3118: 3116: 3115: 3109: 3107: 3103: 3102: 3100: 3099: 3094: 3092:Qinetiq Zephyr 3089: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3069: 3063: 3061: 3057: 3056: 3054: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3022: 3020: 3019:Land transport 3016: 3015: 3013: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2946: 2944:Solar backpack 2941: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2920: 2918: 2911: 2907: 2906: 2903: 2902: 2900: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2874: 2869: 2864: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2851: 2849: 2848: 2846:Synchronverter 2843: 2838: 2836:Solar shingles 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2806:Solar inverter 2803: 2798: 2793: 2787: 2785: 2781: 2780: 2778: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2716: 2714: 2705: 2697: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2690: 2689: 2684: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2671: 2669: 2668: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2632: 2630: 2626: 2625: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2577: 2576: 2575: 2565: 2563:Solar constant 2560: 2555: 2550: 2544: 2542: 2535: 2531: 2530: 2525: 2523: 2522: 2515: 2508: 2500: 2494: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2462: 2446: 2445:External links 2443: 2441: 2440: 2405: 2362: 2324: 2294: 2259: 2218: 2188: 2184: 2175: 2135: 2081: 2046: 2012: 1993:(2): 380–382. 1973: 1964: 1937:(11): 110201. 1917: 1867: 1858: 1832: 1810: 1780: 1755: 1730: 1725:10.4271/972650 1699: 1673: 1644: 1595: 1588: 1552: 1498: 1479: 1434: 1400:(19): 193902. 1380: 1355: 1326: 1308: 1286: 1268: 1261: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1221: 1218: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1159: 1156: 1143: 1140: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1116:Energy storage 1114: 1110:energy storage 1103: 1097: 1094: 1088: 1085: 1075: 1072: 1066: 1062: 1055: 1052: 1047: 1043: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 995: 992: 954: 951: 930: 927: 917: 914: 912: 909: 892: 889: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 831: 827: 819: 816: 803: 800: 791: 788: 782: 779: 777: 774: 769:≅ 1600 nm 758: 757: 746: 741: 738: 733: 727: 724: 721: 716: 696: 689: 645: 642: 635: 632: 629: 624: 621: 615: 610: 601: 597: 590: 586: 582: 579: 573: 570: 567: 564: 561: 558: 554: 551: 532: 529: 523: 520: 498: 495: 489: 486: 472: 469: 460: 459:= ~300 K and T 456: 452: 449: 448: 433: 430: 427: 424: 420: 414: 411: 408: 405: 401: 395: 392: 389: 386: 363: 360: 358: 355: 321:Pierre Aigrain 309: 306: 301: 298: 284: 281: 248: 245: 243: 240: 230: 229:Actual designs 227: 178: 175: 116:electric field 91: 88: 86: 83: 79:steam turbines 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3555: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3538:Photovoltaics 3536: 3535: 3533: 3518: 3517: 3508: 3506: 3505: 3496: 3495: 3492: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3444: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3406: 3403: 3402: 3400: 3396: 3393: 3391: 3387: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3265: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3200: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3165: 3162: 3160: 3157: 3155: 3152: 3150: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3127: 3126: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3098: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3078: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3060:Air transport 3058: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3036:Solar roadway 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3026:Solar vehicle 3024: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3003: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2993: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2940: 2939:Solar charger 2937: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2912: 2908: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2868: 2865: 2863: 2860: 2859: 2857: 2853: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2831:Solar tracker 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 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Thermophotovoltaic energy conversion

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