144:
1509:, usually 0–10 metres (0–33 ft) below the ocean surface and in all levels of latitude. Pteropods can be found lower than 10 meters, but in less amounts in terms of biomass, however, pteropod distribution is more spread out deeper based on findings. This can be explained as Pteropods from tropical areas become more common in deeper areas. They are not found commonly in the deep sea, in fact, few live lower than 500 meters below sea level.
1466:
117:
1513:, areas containing many opportunities for nutrients, and productivity are locations in which Pteropods are usually populous, according to patterns in data. Springtime is a peak season for pteropoda, as they reach higher populations, though data shows that pteropoda south of the
492:
Pteropods are estimated to have originated during the Early
Cretaceous, around 133 million years ago, with the diversification into the major lineages occurring during the mid-late Cretaceous. The oldest known fossil pteropod is a member of
480:
Finally, all these attempts were abandoned and, as more and more species were described as a result of several scientific expeditions, the classification of the
Pteropoda into Thecosomata and Gymnosomata was generally adopted.
1852:
Janssen, A.W.; Goedert, J.L. (2016). "Notes on the systematics, morphology, and biostratigraphy of fossil holoplanktonic
Mollusca, 24. First observation of a genuinely Late Mesozoic thecosomatous pteropod".
1496:
shell. The shell of a pteropod was immersed in ocean water with the projected pH level that the water will reach by the year 2100. After a month and a half in the water, the shell had almost completely dissolved.
1625:
1880:
1797:
1492:
was used to test the sensitivity to decreasing pH. This species of pteropod is potentially vulnerable to the corrosive waters associated with ocean acidification due to their
2386:
1874:
Peijnenburg, Katja T.C.A.; Janssen, Arie W.; Wall-Palmer, Deborah; Goetze, Erica; Maas, Amy E.; Todd, Jonathan A.; Marlétaz, Ferdinand (24 September 2020).
1791:
Peijnenburg, Katja T.C.A.; Janssen, Arie W.; Wall-Palmer, Deborah; Goetze, Erica; Maas, Amy E.; Todd, Jonathan A.; Marlétaz, Ferdinand (13 October 2020).
1950:"Limacina helicina shell dissolution as an indicator of declining habitat suitability owing to ocean acidification in the California Current Ecosystem"
2360:
2192:
2373:
2208:
Burridge, Alice K.; Hörnlein, Christine; Janssen, Arie W.; Hughes, Martin; Bush, Stephanie L.; Marlétaz, Ferdinand; et al. (12 June 2017).
1621:"Systematic position of the pelagic Thecosomata and Gymnosomata within Opisthobranchia (Mollusca, Gastropoda) - revival of the Pteropoda"
1449:
The phylogenetic tree has been inferred from 2,654 nuclear proteins (representing 834,394 concatenated amino acid positions).
449:
went one step further and, for the sake of symmetry, wanted each order to contain four families and each family to contain four genera.
445:(1829) followed the Cuvierian classification but tried to include the character of having a distinct head or not. The German naturalist
1710:
1587:
1558:
393:
429:(and his followers) did not accept the classification by de Blainville; they preferred the original classification as described in
2463:
2425:
308:; if not, their similarity (in that they are both pelagic, small, and transparent, and both groups swim using wing-like flaps (
2160:
2378:
408:
which he upgraded to a third group that he called
Psilosomata. Only much later was Phyllirhoë classified within the order
389:). In 1810, these authors divided the whole group in two separate groups: Those with a shell and those without a shell.
2321:
2308:
473:(1829) treated the Pteropoda as a family and emended the spelling to Pteropodidae (a name now re-used for a family of
484:
The relationship between these two clades is not unequivocally established, but it seems that they are sister taxa.
2453:
2391:
1542:
1517:
are less abundant seasonally. In addition, current data suggests that 93% of the world's pteropods are part of the
670:
143:
2068:"The global distribution of pteropods and their contribution to carbonate and carbon biomass in the modern ocean"
1661:
1288:
450:
344:
1666:
600:
385:
271:
2261:
626:
234:
2326:
2200:
304:"case-body") have a shell, while the Gymnosomata ("naked body") do not. The two clades may or may not be
2412:
1506:
972:
818:
652:
470:
421:
2430:
2347:
2079:
2020:
1889:
1806:
1769:
340:
313:
2179:
1876:"The origin and diversification of pteropods precede past perturbations in the Earth's carbon cycle"
1793:"The origin and diversification of pteropods precede past perturbations in the Earth's carbon cycle"
1554:
1546:
1483:
1477:
1470:
1218:
954:
893:
857:
359:
1948:
Bednaršek, N.; Feely, R.A.; Reum, J.C.P.; Peterson, B.; Menkel, J.; Alin, S.R.; Hales, B. (2014).
2458:
1323:
1141:
928:
767:
138:
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433:
2399:
2334:
2243:
2048:
1987:
1969:
1925:
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1510:
1493:
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1341:
1270:
875:
732:
556:
198:
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2097:
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1977:
1961:
1915:
1897:
1824:
1814:
1728:
1634:
1596:
749:
502:
416:
375:
364:
1541:
Many of the new
Pteropoda species were first described by French zoologists, for example,
1174:
1115:
1073:
1055:
574:
397:
289:
130:
2299:
2083:
2024:
2005:
Comeau, S.; Gorsky, G.; Jeffree, R.; Teyssié, J.-L.; Gattuso, J.-P. (4 September 2009).
1893:
1810:
2238:
2209:
2011:
1982:
1949:
1920:
1875:
1829:
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1465:
1200:
328:
2447:
1639:
1620:
1030:
790:
426:
348:
252:
213:
74:
258:. Most live in the top 10 m of the ocean and are less than 1 cm long. The
2339:
2007:"Impact of ocean acidification on a key Arctic pelagic mollusc (Limacina helicina)"
1097:
802:
409:
305:
275:
263:
262:
of
Pteropoda is the subject of a lengthy debate; they have even been considered as
24:
2170:
2067:
1655:
2313:
2228:
2132:
2293:
1746:
1550:
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1518:
832:
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539:
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446:
442:
293:
285:
267:
249:
227:
49:
2284:
2066:
Bednaršek, N.; Možina, J.; Vogt, M.; O'Brien, C.; Tarling, G.A. (10 Dec 2012).
1581:
Wägele, Heike; Klussmann-Kolb, Annette; Verbeek, Eva; Schrödl, Michael (2013).
2133:
Wissenschaftliche
Ergebnisse der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer
2102:
1601:
1582:
380:
316:
185:
94:
59:
2052:
1973:
1911:
2153:
2139:[Scientific results of the German deep-sea expedition on the steam ship
2128:
2092:
1902:
1819:
498:
369:
353:
309:
297:
259:
255:
241:
155:
125:
99:
28:
20:
2247:
2033:
2006:
1991:
1965:
1929:
1838:
396:
named these two groups
Gymnosomata and Thecosomata and named the combining
2278:
2214:
1855:
245:
175:
89:
84:
69:
64:
54:
2365:
2043:
1514:
474:
238:
104:
79:
116:
1583:"Flashback and foreshadowing – a review of the taxon Opisthobranchia"
165:
2255:
2195:. Report of the Scientific results of the Voyage of the H.M.S.
1482:
A study was conducted on the West Coast of the United States to see
1464:
401:
282:
2352:
2169:(short videos & photos). Plankton Chronicles. Archived from
1751:
Manuel de l'histoire naturelle des mollusques et leurs coquilles
419:
divided the
Pteropoda into Dactylobranchia (with just the genus
2259:
453:, divided the Pteropoda according to the size of their fins: "
400:
Aporobranchia instead of
Pteropoda. He rejected the additional
2199:(1873–1876). Zoology, part LVIII (Report). Archived from
1772:[Description of a new genera in the class Pteropoda].
347:
thought the group to be larger, and so they also included the
2184:
WoRMS – World Registry of Marine Species (marinespecies.org)
1770:"Description d'un genre nouveau de la classe des Ptéropodes"
1755:
Handbook of the Natural History of Molluscs and their Shells
2175:— archived documentary website with film clips & photos
1626:
Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research
1881:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA
1798:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA
1614:
1612:
2143:
1898–1899]. Atlas (Report) (in German). Part 9
1317:
1264:
1256:
1194:
1168:
1135:
1109:
1049:
948:
922:
851:
843:
743:
646:
620:
594:
550:
425:) and Pterobranchia (including all the other genera).
415:
Other attempts were made to describe the Pteropoda:
2268:
2203:
on 6 March 2012 – via 19thcenturyscience.org.
237:meaning "wing-foot") are specialized free-swimming
2210:"Time-calibrated molecular phylogeny of pteropods"
1654:
1691:(1804). "MĂ©moire sur l'Hyale et Ie Pneumoderme".
1943:
1941:
1939:
312:) which protrude from their bodies) may reflect
516:Cladogram of genera and species of pteropods.
8:
463:
455:
431:
333:
2256:
1717:(in French). Vol. xxxii. p. 271.
274:, leans towards interpreting the group as
115:
35:
2237:
2227:
2101:
2091:
2042:
2032:
1981:
1919:
1901:
1828:
1818:
1638:
1619:Klussmann-Kolb, A.; Dinapoli, A. (2006).
1600:
2156:; beautifully illustrated; free download
1573:
1534:
327:The group Pteropoda was established by
1469:Unhealthy pteropod showing effects of
461:" (including only Pneumonoderma) and "
7:
2150:– via biodiversitylibrary.org.
1675:participating institution membership
1461:Vulnerability to ocean acidification
1588:Organisms Diversity & Evolution
1313:
1260:
1252:
1190:
1164:
1157:
1131:
1105:
1045:
1038:
1024:
944:
918:
847:
839:
809:
797:
739:
727:
642:
616:
590:
546:
534:
522:
14:
301:
1640:10.1111/j.1439-0469.2006.00351.x
142:
1774:Annales des Sciences Naturelles
1559:Louis François Auguste Souleyet
319:to their particular lifestyle.
270:. Current consensus, guided by
469:" (including all the others).
281:Pteropoda encompasses the two
1:
2229:10.1371/journal.pone.0177325
1505:Pteropods are found in all
2480:
2152:— by German planktologist
1711:de Blainville, H.M.D.
1693:Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris
1475:
671:Spongiobranchaea australis
31:(extinct flying reptiles).
18:
2193:"Report on the Pteropoda"
2072:Earth System Science Data
1733:London Medical Repository
1662:Oxford English Dictionary
1602:10.1007/s13127-013-0151-5
1521:family, while the 7% are
1486:'s effects on pteropods.
1337:
1319:
1311:
1289:Diacavolinia longirostris
1284:
1266:
1258:
1250:
1214:
1196:
1188:
1170:
1162:
1155:
1137:
1129:
1111:
1103:
1069:
1051:
1043:
1036:
1022:
968:
950:
942:
924:
916:
889:
871:
853:
845:
837:
814:
807:
795:
763:
745:
737:
725:
666:
648:
640:
622:
614:
596:
588:
570:
552:
544:
532:
394:H.M.D. de Blainville
345:Charles Alexandre Lesueur
139:Scientific classification
137:
123:
114:
38:
2191:Pelseneer, Paul (1887).
19:Not to be confused with
2464:Obsolete gastropod taxa
2093:10.5194/essd-4-167-2012
1903:10.1073/pnas.1920918117
1820:10.1073/pnas.1920918117
1667:Oxford University Press
1543:Jean René Constant Quoy
601:Paedoclione doliiformis
2186:. AlphaID 325345.
2167:planktonchronicles.org
2034:10.5194/bg-6-1877-2009
1966:10.1098/rspb.2014.0123
1473:
627:Pneumodermopsis spoeli
497:from the early-middle
464:
456:
432:
334:
2413:Paleobiology Database
1468:
973:Limacina trochiformis
819:Heliconoides inflatus
653:Pneumoderma violaceum
2182:. WoRMS taxon data.
488:Evolutionary history
2173:on 12 January 2012.
2131:(22 January 1905).
2084:2012ESSD....4..167B
2025:2009BGeo....6.1877C
1894:2020PNAS..11725609P
1888:(41): 25609–25617.
1811:2020PNAS..11725609P
1805:(41): 25609–25617.
1665:(Online ed.).
1547:Joseph Paul Gaimard
1511:Continental shelves
1484:ocean acidification
1478:Ocean acidification
1471:ocean acidification
1219:Cuvierina atlantica
955:Limacina bulimoides
894:Limacina retroversa
858:Limacina antarctica
300:. The Thecosomata (
2103:20.500.11850/60379
1960:(1785): 20140123.
1757:] (in French).
1474:
1324:Diacria trispinosa
1142:Hyalocylis striata
929:Limacina lesueurii
768:Peracle reticulata
2454:Euopisthobranchia
2441:
2440:
2400:Open Tree of Life
2262:Taxon identifiers
1776:. 1 (in French).
1768:Rang, S. (1825).
1715:Diet. d. Sci. Nat
1673:(Subscription or
1494:calcium carbonate
1489:Limacina helicina
1453:
1452:
1443:
1442:
1434:
1433:
1425:
1424:
1416:
1415:
1407:
1406:
1398:
1397:
1389:
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1380:
1379:
1371:
1370:
1362:
1361:
1353:
1352:
1342:Telodiacria danae
1300:
1299:
1271:Cavolinia inflexa
1239:
1238:
1230:
1229:
1085:
1084:
1011:
1010:
1002:
1001:
993:
992:
984:
983:
905:
904:
876:Limacina helicina
779:
778:
733:Pseudothecosomata
709:
708:
700:
699:
691:
690:
682:
681:
557:Clione antarctica
272:molecular studies
221:
220:
217:
199:Euopisthobranchia
16:Order of molluscs
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2110:
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2046:
2036:
2019:(9): 1877–1882.
2002:
1996:
1995:
1985:
1945:
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1933:
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1555:Alcide d'Orbigny
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1132:
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1039:
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750:Cymbulia sibogae
740:
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617:
591:
547:
535:
523:
513:
512:
503:San Juan Islands
501:deposits of the
467:
459:
437:
379:), and even the
337:
303:
266:with respect to
212:
147:
146:
119:
109:
46:
45:Campanian–Recent
42:Temporal range:
36:
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2222:(6): e0177325.
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2162:Episode 17
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2004:
2003:
1999:
1954:Proc. R. Soc. B
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1175:Clio pyramidata
1116:Styliola subula
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1074:Creseis virgula
1056:Creseis acicula
1012:
1003:
994:
985:
906:
780:
710:
701:
692:
683:
575:Clione limacina
511:
490:
465:Microptérygiens
457:Macroptérygiens
434:Le Règne Animal
325:
290:sea butterflies
211:
141:
131:Clione limacina
128:of the species
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27:(megabats), or
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2121:External links
2119:
2117:
2116:
2078:(1): 167–186.
2058:
2012:Biogeosciences
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1935:
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1735:. p. 235.
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341:François Péron
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1989:
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1031:Cavolinioidea
1027:
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811:
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800:
799:
793:
792:
791:Euthecosomata
788:
787:
784:
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775:
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372:
371:
366:
362:
361:
356:
355:
350:
349:opisthobranch
346:
342:
338:
336:
330:
322:
320:
318:
315:
311:
307:
299:
295:
291:
287:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
254:
253:opisthobranch
251:
247:
243:
240:
236:
232:
229:
225:
215:
210:
207:
204:
203:
200:
197:
194:
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127:
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106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
37:
34:
30:
26:
23:(dinosaurs),
22:
2269:
2219:
2213:
2201:the original
2196:
2183:
2171:the original
2166:
2161:
2145:. Retrieved
2140:
2134:
2107:. Retrieved
2075:
2071:
2061:
2016:
2010:
2000:
1957:
1953:
1885:
1879:
1869:
1860:
1854:
1847:
1802:
1796:
1786:
1777:
1773:
1763:
1754:
1750:
1741:
1732:
1723:
1714:
1705:
1696:
1692:
1683:
1660:
1649:
1630:
1624:
1592:
1586:
1576:
1537:
1507:major oceans
1504:
1501:Distribution
1487:
1481:
1340:
1338:
1322:
1320:
1287:
1285:
1269:
1267:
1217:
1215:
1199:
1197:
1173:
1171:
1140:
1138:
1114:
1112:
1098:Cavoliniidae
1096:
1095:
1072:
1070:
1054:
1052:
1029:
1028:
971:
969:
953:
951:
927:
925:
892:
890:
874:
872:
856:
854:
831:
817:
815:
803:Limacinoidea
801:
789:
766:
764:
748:
746:
731:
719:
669:
667:
651:
649:
625:
623:
599:
597:
573:
571:
555:
553:
538:
527:
526:
491:
483:
479:
462:
454:
441:
430:
420:
414:
410:Nudibranchia
405:
391:
384:
374:
368:
358:
352:
332:
326:
280:
276:monophyletic
264:paraphyletic
230:
223:
222:
208:
192:
129:
33:
25:Pteropodidae
2294:Wikispecies
2180:"Pteropoda"
2044:10453/14721
1595:: 133–149.
1523:Gymnosomata
1519:Thecosomata
833:Limacinidae
721:Thecosomata
540:Gymnosomata
495:Limacinidae
339:" in 1804.
306:sister taxa
294:Gymnosomata
286:Thecosomata
268:cephalopods
233:, from the
228:common name
2448:Categories
2197:Challenger
2147:2023-04-25
2129:Chun, Carl
1729:Gray, J.E.
1689:Cuvier, G.
1677:required.)
1633:(2): 118.
1569:References
475:fruit bats
471:W.B. Clark
406:Phyllirhoë
386:Callianira
381:Ctenophora
365:heteropoda
354:Phyllirhoë
335:ptéropodes
317:adaptation
314:convergent
298:sea angels
256:gastropods
242:sea snails
186:Gastropoda
2459:Pteropoda
2314:Pteropoda
2300:Pteropoda
2270:Pteropoda
2154:Carl Chun
2137:1898–1899
2053:1726-4189
1974:0962-8452
1912:0027-8424
1551:Paul Rang
1529:Footnotes
528:Pteropoda
509:Phylogeny
499:Campanian
451:P.A. 1829
422:Cavolinia
417:J.E. Gray
404:, except
392:In 1824,
370:Carinaria
310:parapodia
260:monophyly
246:sea slugs
231:pteropods
224:Pteropoda
209:Pteropoda
162:Kingdom:
156:Eukaryota
126:sea angel
39:Pteropoda
29:Pterosaur
21:Theropoda
2353:46451494
2285:Q1031983
2279:Wikidata
2248:28604805
2215:PLoS One
2141:Valdivia
2135:Valdivia
1992:24789895
1930:32973093
1863:: 59–63.
1856:Basteria
1839:32973093
1749:(1829).
1747:Rang, P.
1731:(1821).
1713:(1824).
1656:"theco-"
323:Taxonomy
176:Mollusca
172:Phylum:
166:Animalia
152:Domain:
2366:9697017
2239:5467808
2109:18 June
2080:Bibcode
2021:Bibcode
1983:4024287
1921:7568333
1890:Bibcode
1830:7568333
1807:Bibcode
1515:equator
1456:Threats
1339:
1321:
1286:
1268:
1216:
1198:
1172:
1139:
1113:
1071:
1053:
970:
952:
926:
891:
873:
855:
816:
765:
747:
668:
650:
624:
598:
572:
554:
447:L. Oken
363:), the
360:Glaucus
239:pelagic
205:Order:
182:Class:
2431:325345
2418:167418
2405:616224
2392:977783
2379:198379
2327:854079
2246:
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2051:
1990:
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1972:
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1918:
1910:
1837:
1827:
1780:: 284.
1699:: 232.
1557:, and
427:Cuvier
402:genera
376:Firola
367:taxa (
351:taxa (
329:Cuvier
296:, the
292:, and
288:, the
283:clades
250:marine
216:(1804)
214:Cuvier
2426:WoRMS
2340:7NFFH
1753:[
1671:
398:order
235:Greek
193:Clade
2387:NCBI
2374:ITIS
2361:GBIF
2322:BOLD
2244:PMID
2111:2018
2049:ISSN
1988:PMID
1970:ISSN
1926:PMID
1908:ISSN
1835:PMID
1545:and
443:Rang
373:and
357:and
343:and
331:as "
302:lit.
244:and
50:Preęž’
2348:EoL
2335:CoL
2309:AFD
2234:PMC
2224:doi
2098:hdl
2088:doi
2039:hdl
2029:doi
1978:PMC
1962:doi
1958:281
1916:PMC
1898:doi
1886:117
1825:PMC
1815:doi
1803:117
1635:doi
1597:doi
2450::
2428::
2415::
2402::
2389::
2376::
2363::
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2337::
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1968:.
1956:.
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1938:^
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1914:.
1906:.
1896:.
1884:.
1878:.
1861:80
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124:A
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2041::
2031::
2023::
2017:6
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1964::
1932:.
1900::
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1841:.
1817::
1809::
1778:V
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1637::
1605:.
1599::
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383:(
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