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40:
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844:. Though she gave birth to a daughter, Derceto was later ashamed of sleeping with the man and thus killed him and abandoned her daughter, throwing herself into a lake. This led her to transform into a mermaid-like creature. According to Ctesias, the inhabitants of Ashkelon and the rest of the Levant thereafter no longer ate fish, instead honoring them as gods. The baby Semiramis was kept alive through the aid of doves, who kept her warm with their wings and fed her until she was eventually found and adopted by a shepherd named Simmas. The connection of Semiramis to Ashkelon and the cult of fish is a perplexing one. In ancient Mesopotamia, the god
601:
632:
inscription on the stele ascribes the fighting activities themselves solely to Adad-nirari, anything else would not have been possible in
Assyrian ideology, but the important activity of extending Assyrian territory and setting up the stele, otherwise a traditional privilege only of the king, is attributed to both Adad-nirari and Shammuramat, as indicated by a plural "they". It is furthermore significant that the stele outlines Adad-nirari's descent from both Shamshi-Adad and Shammuramat, given that kings usually only mentioned their paternal lineage. In full, the inscription on the boundary stele reads:
857:
956:, Ninyas killed Semiramis because she attempted to have sexual relations with him; accusations of sexual voracity were often flung in history on warrior women, due to their unusual position, and on widows. Some other late traditions accused Semiramis of having sex with a horse and committing suicide by burning herself alive. These negative portrayals have little to do with the more ancient versions of the legend, such as that of Ctesias, wherein Semiramis kills her lovers and never remarries out of fear of losing the throne.
696:
903:. Upon her arrival in Bactra, Semiramis proves to be a skilled warrior and succeeds in capturing the city, securing the admiration and attraction of Ninus. When Ninus threatens to blind Onnes due to Onnes refusing to relinquish his wife to him, Onnes hangs himself. After this, Semiramis becomes Ninus's wife. A king stealing a general's wife has parallels in Assyrian history; a letter of unknown date relates that an official revolted against the king due to the official's wife being taken into the royal harem.
920:. The death of Ninus while Ninyas is still young leaves Semiramis to rule the empire. Semiramis erects a huge mound over Ninus's grave, using his bones to embellish Nineveh and turning his grave into a monument of her own strength and power. Later on, she constructs several more mounds to house the remains of generals, officials and her former lovers, sometimes buried alive. To rival Nineveh, founded by her husband, Semiramis is then credited with founding
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895:. When the siege drags on, he sends for his wife, who he misses dearly, a message Semiramis interprets as a call for military assistance. Thus, she equips herself for war and, using clothes and armor, masks her identity as a woman. As part of her equipment, Semiramis invented long-sleeved pants that intentionally masked the gender of the bearer, according to Ctesias the precursor of later pants popular among the
653:, together with eight kings, who were with him at the city Paqarḫubunu, their boundary and land. I deprived them of their camp. In order to save their lives, they went up (the mountains). In that year they put up this boundary stone between Ušpilulume, king of Kummuh and Qalparuda, son of Palalam, king of Gurgum. Whoever takes it away from the possession of Ušpilulume, his sons, his grandsons, may the gods
952:, is described by Ctesias as Semiramis's only failure when she is forced to turn back after twice being injured by the Indian king. In several of the legends, including that of Ctesias, Semiramis's life comes to an end when she is killed by her son Ninyas, who is described as a weak man who avoided other men and warlike activities. According to the 2nd-century AD historian
438:. Ashkelon seems an unlikely place of origin because the city was situated far beyond the Assyrian imperial ambitions of the time and since it would be unlikely for an Assyrian king to marry someone from a city of such little diplomatic weight. In 2001, Jamie Novotny proposed that she could have been a princess from Syria, perhaps from either
928:, though Diodorus Siculus attributes them a later king. Other than the baseless speculation that Shammuramat was of Babylonian origin, there is no evidence for any historical connection between Shammuramat and Babylon, nor of any building works being conducted in the city under Adad-nirari (who did not control Babylonia).
849:
historical queen. It is possible that there was a cult of Nebo (the West
Semitic version of the Assyrian-Babylonian Nabu) at Ashkelon but no evidence for this exists. Another inspiration for the tale, in particular Semiramis's connection to doves and Semiramis and her mother killing their lovers, could be
1063:
Assyrian kings at times had multiple wives at the same time, but not all were recognized as queens (or "women of the palace"). Though it has been disputed in the past, it appears that only one woman bore the title at any given time, as the term typically appears without qualifiers (indicating a lack
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811–783 BC), when she reached an unusually prominent position. Though Adad-nirari was probably not a minor upon his accession to the throne, he is generally assumed to have been quite young, which might partly explain why
Shammuramat was allowed to take such a prominent role. Because of the limited
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was sometimes connected to fish and mermen and mermaids frequently figured as statues in his temples and as part of his iconography. Given that the temple dedication by Bel-tarṣi-ilumma which mentioned
Shammuramat was concerning a temple of Nabu, a spurious connection could perhaps be drawn to the
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in Syria; she is the only known ancient
Assyrian woman to take part in a campaign. In 2020, Sebastian Fink suggested that the fact that she was mentioned as prominently as she was in the text might indicate that the campaign was in fact led by Shammuramat and that Adad-nirari was not present. The
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in Syria and both she and Adad-nirari are credited with expanding the borders of the empire in all directions. In some inscriptions, local governors made dedications not only to the king (as was customary) but exceptionally also to
Shammuramat. All evidence suggests that Shammuramat was among the
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did not believe that
Shammuramat was co-regent with Adad-nirari. Several recent researchers, such as Saana Svärd and Sebastian Fink, in their writings simply mention that whether she could be considered a co-regent is still a matter of debate. In 2012, Svärd wrote that regardless of her formal
745:, governor of Kalhu, who set them up in the god's temple in the city. After a passage praising Nabu, both inscriptions record that Bel-tarṣi-ilumma had the status made and dedicated "for the life of" Adad-nirari, king of Assyria, and Shammuramat, queen. Typically, only the king was mentioned.
756:, suggested that Shammuramat ruled the empire for five years, from the death of her husband until 806 BC, as the text of the stele was interpreted as Adad-nirari stating that he "sat himself on the royal throne" and marched to Aramea only in 806 BC. However, the relevant term in this case,
853:, the Mesopotamian goddess of love and war. The Assyrian and Babylonian queens were strongly connected to Ishtar in iconography. If Shammuramat resigned and became a temple woman it is also possible that this was the inspiration for later traditions designating her as a divine figure.
913:, Ninus and Semiramis are described as two star-crossed lovers who meet at a time when they are too young to marry. In this tale, Derceto, now called Derceia, is a caring mother who wishes to smooth the way for the romance and Semiramis is a tongue-tied, shy and weeping teenager.
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and the
Assyrian Empire and a figure who in virtually all stories he appeared in was overshadowed by his wife. Ctesias dated the time of Semiramis and the foundation of the Assyrian Empire to 2166 BC. In Ctesias's account, young Semiramis was first married to the Assyrian general
1836:(2005). "Semiramis in History and Legend: a Case Study in Interpretation of an Assyrian Historical Tradition, with Observations on Archetypes in Ancient Historiography, on Euhemerism before Euhemerus, and on the So-called Greek Ethnographie Style". In S. Gruen, Erich (ed.).
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The
Semiramis of legend is also described as leading military campaigns, for instance against both Armenia and India. The tale of Semiramis's conflict with Armenia could perhaps derive from remembrance of the campaigns of Adad-nirari, some of which were directed against
763:
It is possible that
Shammuramat after a period of political prominence resigned and became a temple woman at one of the prominent temples in the empire, perhaps the Nabu temple in Kalhu where statues had previously been dedicated to her. Shammuramat probably died around
205:. If originating as a foreigner she is typically assumed to have been a princess. Nothing is known of her life or relative influence and power in the reign of her husband. Under Adad-nirari, her role was exceptionally prominent for a woman of the time. Per the
730:). Though the function and purpose of these stelae remains unknown, it is obvious that only exceptional women were able to erect their own stelae among the others. Shammuramat's stele at Assur gives her the same titles as in the Pazarcık boundary stele.
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Shammuramat has long been recognized as the primary inspiration behind the legendary Assyrian warrior-queen and heroine Semiramis, though the Semiramis tradition likely also draws some inspiration from several other real and mythological figures of the
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after the death of Shamshi-Adad while her son was young. Shammuramat does not appear in later Assyrian accounts, perhaps, per Svärd, due to Assyrian royal ideology finding it difficult to "accommodate the presence of an authoritative female figure".
585:. In 2004, Sarah C. Melville wrote that Shammuramat was "probably not" co-regent with her son but in 2014, she wrote that Shammuramat "possibly even acted as regent during the early years of her son's reign". Writing in 2013,
636:
Boundary stone of Adad-nirari, king of Assyria, son of Shamshi-Adad, king of Assyria (and of) Shammuramat, queen of Shamshi-Adad, king of Assyria, mother of Adad-nirari, mighty king, king of Assyria, daughter-in-law of
718:, the religious and ceremonial heart of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, there are innumerable steles erected by kings and influential male officials and generals, but only three erected by women (the other two women being
1953:
Gansell, Amy Rebecca (2018). "In Pursuit of Neo-Assyrian Queens: An Interdisciplinary Methodology for Researching Ancient Women and Engendering Ancient History". In Svärd, Saana; Garcia-Ventura, Agnès (eds.).
984:, but this was reserved for goddesses and foreign queens who ruled in their own right. Because the consorts of the kings did not rule themselves, they were not regarded as their equals and as such not called
906:
Though described as fierce women evoking ancient Ishtar in Ctesias's account, both Semiramis and Dercerto were sometimes in later works transformed into almost unrecognizable figures. In the 1st-century BC
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writings concerning the legend of Semiramis survive or have yet been discovered, it is believed to have originated as a native Assyrian Mesopotamian legend, only later finding its way into first
760:, interpreted by Luckenbill as "to become of age" or "to ascend the throne" more probably means something akin to "gloriously" or "magnificently" per other known uses of it in inscriptions.
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In 2013, David Kertai suggested that Shammuramat's continued use of the title "queen" in her son's reign, the only certain Assyrian example of this, could indicate that she for a time was
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queen to have retained her status as queen after the death of her husband and the only known ancient Assyrian woman to have partaken in, and perhaps even led, a military campaign.
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824–811 BC). The surviving source material concerning Shammuramat is relatively limited. In known material from her husband's reign, she is only mentioned in a single
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The most serious indicator of Shammuramat's exceptional power and influence, and the main evidence used by scholars who support her being a co-regent, is a
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position, Shammuramat was clearly an authoritative female figure who played an important role in running the empire, perhaps acting as a sort of
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inscribed with her name. Her role and influence at the court of her husband is as such largely unknown. The inscription on the eye bead reads:
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source material, her exact role and position remains disputed, though it is clear that she was among the most renowned figures of her time.
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origin. Various alternate origins have also been suggested by modern historians, though all such proposals are mere speculation. In 1910,
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In the accounts of Ctesias and Diodorus Siculus, Ninus is old at the time of their marriage and dies soon after the birth of their son
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in Turkey. Variations in the often formulaic Assyrian royal inscriptions were typically historically and ideologically important. The
944:, a contemporary of Shammuramat, constructed a great canal which later on curiously at some point was named after Shammuramat as the
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1988:
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30:
302:. The most likely etymology of the name is that it follows a common name archetype in both West Semitic and Akkadian, on the form
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145:
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811–783 BC). Though there is dispute in regard to Shammuramat's formal status and position, and if she should be considered a
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and the Assyrian Empire. Among the legendary feats ascribed to Semiramis were securing victory during a siege of the city of
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literature. The legend is chiefly known today through the writings of Diodorus Siculus and the 5th-century BC historian
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856:
1092:"; the evidence is in her case not conclusive and several alternate explanations have been proposed. From the time of
891:, with whom she had two children. Onnes is described as fighting alongside Ninus in an attempt to capture the city of
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1873:
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1866:: Its Background in Assyrian and Seleucid History and Monuments". In Whitmarsh, Tim & Thomson, Stuart (eds.).
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According to Ctesias, Semiramis was born in Ashkelon as the daughter of a Levantine mortal and the Greek goddess
364:, the name ultimately derived from the Assyrian word for "dove", an etymology probably based on equating Σεμι- (
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2352:
1038:
642:
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Svärd, Saana (2016). "Neo-Assyrian Elite Women". In Budin, Stephanie Lynn & Turfa, Jean MacIntosh (eds.).
645:. When Ušpilulume, king of Kummuh, caused Adad-nirari, king of Assyria (and) Shammuramat, queen, to cross the
840:. Supposedly Derceto had been cursed to fall in love with the ordinary Levantine man as a result of angering
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557:, her lady, Shammuramat, queen of Shamshi-Adad, king of Assyria, dedicated (this) for her well-being.
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Shammuramat was immortalized in later literary tradition as the legendary warrior-queen and heroine
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2392:
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The only other queen who has been suggested to have retained her status in this way is the earlier
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752:, erected by Adad-nirari in 806 BC. Older translations of the stele, such as a 1927 translation by
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411:
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249:. Numerous parallels can be drawn between the historical Shammuramat and the legendary Semiramis.
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establishes that Shammuramat accompanied her son on a military campaign against the Kingdom of
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A previously accepted chief piece of evidence for Shammuramat having ruled the empire was the
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737:, the Assyrian capital. These inscriptions record that the statues were dedicated to the god
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suggested that she was a Babylonian princess, though there is no evidence for such an idea.
380:
361:
1790:"Warlike men and invisible women: how scribes in the Ancient Near East represented warfare"
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Though usually used by historians today, the title of "queen" as such did not exist in the
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824–811 BC), Shammuramat reached an unusually prominent position in the reign of her son
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1932:
Frahm, Eckart (2017). "The Neo-Assyrian Period (ca. 1000–609 BCE)". In E. Frahm (ed.).
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592:
535:
507:
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Akkadian origin. Proposed regions of origin include Akkadian speaking Assyria itself,
149:
87:
2081:
Melville, Sarah C. (2014). "Women in Neo-Assyrian texts". In Chavalas, Mark W. (ed.).
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850 BC. Nothing is known of Shammuramat's origins from contemporary sources. In later
387:("thunder of heaven"), relating it to a legend that she was born in thunder. In 1991,
2642:
2610:
2523:
2493:
2478:
2235:
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2150:"Finding Hama: On the Identification of a Forgotten Queen Buried in the Nimrud Tombs"
2019:
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909:
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349:
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936:(a precursor of Armenia). One of Adad-nirari's frequent foes was the Urartian king
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650:
190:
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1974:
1933:
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The Routledge Companion to Women and Monarchy in the Ancient Mediterranean World
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not support his lawsuit. Prohibition of Ashur, my god, (and) Sîn, who dwells in
654:
620:
174:, it is clear that she was among the most powerful and influential women of the
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1789:
439:
1906:
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Shammuramat was a famous figure already in her lifetime. Among the so-called
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218:
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BC), whose funerary inscription records her as "queen of Ashurnasirpal and
810:
467:
341:(meaning "red"), was the name of an otherwise poorly attested deity in the
2011:
900:
546:
435:
246:
2030:
The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World
1808:
241:, and the invention of a type of pants/trousers later popular among the
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1050:
For alternate transliterations and the etymology of the name, see the "
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883:
837:
830:
733:
Shammuramat is mentioned in inscriptions on two identical statues from
670:
377:
238:
230:
222:
185:
Shammuramat's origin is not clear; her name could equally likely be of
2111:. Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. pp. 1083–1084.
2050:"Neo-Assyrian Royal Women and Male Identity: Status as a Social Tool"
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210:
198:
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1103:) onwards, former queens could in the reign of their sons be titled
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608:, which mentions Shammuramat's participation in a campaign against
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896:
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734:
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242:
226:
49:
45:
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Shammuramat is more prominently attested in the reign of her son
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738:
662:
2365:
2247:
1998:
Kertai, David (2013). "The Queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire".
1244:
1242:
1240:
619:(marker of the border) erected by Adad-nirari near modern-day
294:
origin. In West Semitic it would likely have been rendered as
434:
and in 1991, Weinfeld suggested that she was a princess from
360:). According to the 1st-century BC Classical Greek historian
534:
Shammuramat was the wife and queen of the Neo-Assyrian king
352:
sources, Shammuramat's name appears in the forms Σεμιραμις (
992:(woman of the palace). In Assyrian, this term was rendered
649:
river; I smashed Attar-šumkī, son of Abī-rāmi, of the city
1838:
Cultural Borrowings and Ethnic Appropriations in Antiquity
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proposed in 1971 that she might have been a princess from
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Various alternate etymologies have also been proposed. In
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she accompanied her son on a campaign against the Aramean
148:. Beginning her career as the primary consort of the king
1391:
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988:. Instead, the term reserved for the primary consort was
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Photograph and drawing of Shammuramat's stele from Assur
2184:
Women in Antiquity: Real Women across the Ancient World
1895:. In Carney, Elizabeth D. & Müller, Sabine (eds.).
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878:
In almost all legends, Semiramis becomes the wife of
383:
traces the etymology of the name to the West Semitic
1976:
Warrior Women: The Anonymous Tractatus De Mulieribus
882:(a purely legendary figure), a legendary founder of
2579:
2559:
2552:
2430:
2400:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
105:
93:
83:
68:
57:
23:
414:, Shammuramat was variously described as being of
2204:"The Historical Inscriptions of Adad-Nirari III"
948:. The Indian campaign, perhaps parallelling the
871:, depicting Semiramis being murdered by her son
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1009:The text reads "stele of Shammuramat, queen of
634:
551:
1958:. University Park, Pennsylvania: Eisenbrauns.
924:. Ctesias credits Semiramis with creating the
2377:
2259:
976:. The feminine version of the word for king (
8:
2109:Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 3/1
2083:Women in the Ancient Near East: A Sourcebook
274:in Assyrian inscriptions (transliterated as
2583:
2556:
2427:
2404:
2384:
2370:
2362:
2266:
2252:
2244:
38:
20:
2033:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1807:
391:suggested that the name derived from the
2054:Journal of the American Oriental Society
1956:Studying Gender in the Ancient Near East
1544:
1434:
1422:
1395:
1380:
1351:
1263:
1231:
1216:
1177:
1160:
1116:She is for instance not included in the
221:, a half-divine daughter of the goddess
1901:. London: Routledge. pp. 137–148.
1869:The Romance between Greece and the East
1672:
1305:
1248:
1189:
1134:
965:
714:, a set of steles erected centrally in
376:(meaning dove). The 7th-century Jewish
1648:
1624:
1597:
1556:
1467:
1446:
1368:
1336:
1324:
1278:
1148:
950:Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
801:, such as the later Assyrian consorts
424:Carl Ferdinand Friedrich Lehmann-Haupt
1893:"Invisible Mesopotamian royal women?"
1568:
1482:
1204:
7:
2132:Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative
1771:
1759:
1747:
1735:
1723:
1711:
1699:
1684:
1660:
1636:
1609:
1585:
1532:
1501:
214:most renowned figures of her time.
1938:. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
14:
2275:Queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
2606:Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
2348:
2347:
1520:
694:
685:
506:Stelae of Shammuramat's husband
496:
487:
325:is beloved") in Akkadian, where
314:is exalted") in West Semitic or
146:queen of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
2154:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1098:
1083:
572:
540:
523:
512:
165:
154:
2107:. In Baker, Heather D. (ed.).
225:and the wife of the fictional
1:
2689:9th-century BC queens regnant
765:
407:
76:
72:
61:
2102:"Sammu-rāmat or Sammu-ramāt"
2000:Altorientalische Forschungen
1795:Clio: Women, Gender, History
2148:Spurrier, Tracy L. (2017).
2048:Melville, Sarah C. (2004).
1788:Clancier, Philippe (2014).
229:, the legendary founder of
2710:
2669:Ancient Mesopotamian women
2286:Mullissu-mukannishat-Ninua
1874:Cambridge University Press
926:Hanging Gardens of Babylon
787:Semiramis Building Babylon
775:
262:Shammuramat's name, spelt
197:(also Akkadian speaking),
111:Sammu-rāmat or Sammu-ramāt
2623:
2596:Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal
2586:
2407:
2345:
2281:
1862:(2013). "The Greek Novel
1075:Mulissu-mukannishat-Ninua
1051:
726:, and an unknown wife of
333:(name of a god) element.
37:
28:
2027:Mayor, Adrienne (2014).
1907:10.4324/9780429434105-15
1891:Fink, Sebastian (2020).
1039:king of the Four Corners
643:king of the Four Corners
562:Reign of Adad-nirari III
517:BC; left) and their son
178:; she is the only known
2100:Novotny, Jamie (2004).
1107:("Mother of the King").
996:, later abbreviated to
754:Daniel David Luckenbill
479:Reign of Shamshi-Adad V
2202:Tadmor, Hayim (1973).
1973:Gera, Deborah (1997).
1935:A Companion to Assyria
875:
793:
679:
612:
559:
16:Ancient Assyrian queen
2659:9th-century BC people
2654:9th-century BC births
2187:. London: Routledge.
2085:. London: Routledge.
2012:10.1524/aof.2013.0006
1251:, pp. 1083–1084.
1033:, daughter-in-law of
860:1784 illustration by
859:
785:
603:
474:Status and activities
406:Shammuramat was born
368:-) with the Akkadian
2567:State communications
2337:Ana-Tashmetum-taklak
1842:Franz Steiner Verlag
1027:king of the Universe
1015:king of the Universe
237:, the foundation of
2649:Neo-Assyrian Empire
2489:Tiglath-Pileser III
2417:Resettlement policy
2393:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1864:Ninus and Semiramis
1809:10.4000/cliowgh.440
1547:, pp. 228–229.
1449:, pp. 111–112.
1339:, pp. 112–113.
974:Neo-Assyrian Empire
412:classical tradition
343:Neo-Assyrian period
31:Woman of the Palace
2591:Assyrian sculpture
2443:Tukulti-Ninurta II
1119:Assyrian King List
876:
794:
613:
398:("high heavens").
2664:Ancient Assyrians
2636:
2635:
2619:
2618:
2575:
2574:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2359:
2358:
2194:978-1-138-80836-2
2135:. 23 October 2014
2092:978-0-415-44855-0
2040:978-0-691-17027-5
1883:978-1-107-03824-0
1860:Dalley, Stephanie
1834:Dalley, Stephanie
1774:, pp. 82–83.
1762:, pp. 81–82.
1750:, pp. 80–81.
1738:, pp. 77–78.
1726:, pp. 72–73.
1702:, pp. 74–75.
1687:, pp. 73–74.
1651:, pp. 13–14.
1639:, pp. 70–71.
991:
862:Nicolas de Launay
799:ancient Near East
356:) and Σεμυραμις (
176:ancient Near East
144:, was a powerful
132:), also known as
115:
114:
44:Inscription on a
2701:
2584:
2557:
2536:Ashur-uballit II
2530:Sin-shumu-lishir
2519:Ashur-etil-ilani
2448:Ashurnasirpal II
2428:
2405:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2363:
2351:
2350:
2316:Tashmetu-sharrat
2268:
2261:
2254:
2245:
2239:
2198:
2177:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2122:
2106:
2096:
2077:
2044:
2023:
1994:
1969:
1949:
1928:
1887:
1855:
1829:
1811:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1715:
1709:
1703:
1697:
1688:
1682:
1676:
1670:
1664:
1658:
1652:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1622:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1572:
1566:
1560:
1554:
1548:
1542:
1536:
1530:
1524:
1518:
1505:
1499:
1486:
1480:
1471:
1465:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1399:
1393:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1355:
1349:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1309:
1303:
1282:
1276:
1267:
1261:
1252:
1246:
1235:
1229:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1193:
1187:
1181:
1175:
1164:
1158:
1152:
1146:
1123:
1114:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1087:
1085:
1079:Ashurnasirpal II
1071:
1065:
1061:
1055:
1048:
1042:
1007:
1001:
989:
970:
870:
772:Semiramis legend
767:
743:Bel-tarṣi-ilumma
698:
689:
587:Stephanie Dalley
576:
574:
544:
542:
527:
525:
516:
514:
500:
491:
409:
381:Leviticus Rabbah
362:Diodorus Siculus
328:
324:
317:
313:
305:
286:), is of either
265:
169:
167:
158:
156:
78:
74:
63:
42:
21:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2674:Assyrian queens
2639:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2615:
2601:Lachish Reliefs
2571:
2540:
2469:Adad-nirari III
2453:Shalmaneser III
2426:
2396:
2390:
2360:
2355:
2341:
2332:Libbali-sharrat
2277:
2272:
2242:
2220:10.2307/4199961
2201:
2195:
2180:
2147:
2138:
2136:
2125:
2119:
2104:
2099:
2093:
2080:
2066:10.2307/4132152
2047:
2041:
2026:
1997:
1991:
1972:
1966:
1952:
1946:
1931:
1917:
1890:
1884:
1858:
1852:
1832:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1770:
1766:
1758:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1710:
1706:
1698:
1691:
1683:
1679:
1671:
1667:
1659:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1623:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1596:
1592:
1584:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1531:
1527:
1519:
1508:
1500:
1489:
1481:
1474:
1466:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1402:
1394:
1387:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1358:
1350:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1312:
1308:, p. 1084.
1304:
1285:
1277:
1270:
1262:
1255:
1247:
1238:
1230:
1223:
1215:
1211:
1203:
1196:
1192:, p. 1083.
1188:
1184:
1176:
1167:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1126:
1115:
1111:
1097:
1082:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1058:
1049:
1045:
1031:king of Assyria
1019:king of Assyria
1008:
1004:
971:
967:
962:
940:, whose father
864:
780:
774:
722:, the queen of
708:
707:
706:
705:
701:
700:
699:
691:
690:
571:
568:Adad-nirari III
564:
539:
532:
531:
530:
529:
522:
519:Adad-nirari III
511:
503:
502:
501:
493:
492:
481:
476:
404:
350:Classical Greek
326:
322:
315:
311:
303:
263:
260:
255:
164:
161:Adad-nirari III
153:
100:Adad-nirari III
53:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2707:
2705:
2697:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2641:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2587:
2581:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2563:
2561:
2560:Infrastructure
2554:
2550:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2484:Ashur-nirari V
2481:
2476:
2474:Shalmaneser IV
2471:
2466:
2460:
2458:Shamshi-Adad V
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2438:Adad-nirari II
2434:
2432:
2425:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2408:
2402:
2398:
2397:
2395: articles
2391:
2389:
2388:
2381:
2374:
2366:
2357:
2356:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2327:Esharra-hammat
2324:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2263:
2256:
2248:
2241:
2240:
2214:(2): 141–150.
2199:
2193:
2178:
2166:10.1086/690911
2160:(1): 149–174.
2145:
2123:
2117:
2097:
2091:
2078:
2045:
2039:
2024:
2006:(1): 108–124.
1995:
1989:
1970:
1965:978-1575067704
1964:
1950:
1945:978-1118325247
1944:
1929:
1916:978-0429434105
1915:
1888:
1882:
1856:
1850:
1830:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1764:
1752:
1740:
1728:
1716:
1704:
1689:
1677:
1675:, p. 159.
1665:
1653:
1641:
1629:
1614:
1602:
1590:
1573:
1571:, p. 174.
1561:
1559:, p. 147.
1549:
1537:
1525:
1506:
1487:
1485:, p. 130.
1472:
1470:, p. 118.
1451:
1439:
1437:, p. 236.
1427:
1425:, p. 228.
1400:
1385:
1373:
1371:, p. 113.
1356:
1354:, p. 234.
1341:
1329:
1310:
1283:
1268:
1253:
1236:
1221:
1219:, p. 166.
1209:
1207:, p. 193.
1194:
1182:
1180:, p. 233.
1165:
1163:, p. 173.
1153:
1151:, p. 109.
1133:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1109:
1101: 705–681
1086: 883–859
1066:
1064:of ambiguity).
1056:
1043:
1002:
964:
963:
961:
958:
946:Shamiram Canal
776:Main article:
773:
770:
720:Libbāli-šarrat
703:
702:
693:
692:
684:
683:
682:
681:
680:
625:Pazarcık Stele
617:boundary stele
606:Pazarcık Stele
593:pater familias
563:
560:
536:Shamshi-Adad V
526: 811–783
515: 824–811
508:Shamshi-Adad V
505:
504:
495:
494:
486:
485:
484:
483:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
428:Wilhelm Eilers
403:
400:
389:Moshe Weinfeld
337:, rendered as
259:
256:
254:
251:
207:Pazarcık Stele
150:Shamshi-Adad V
113:
112:
109:
103:
102:
97:
91:
90:
88:Shamshi-Adad V
85:
81:
80:
70:
66:
65:
59:
55:
54:
52:by Shammuramat
43:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2706:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2684:Deified women
2682:
2680:
2679:Queen mothers
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2622:
2612:
2611:Balawat Gates
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2551:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2525:
2524:Sinsharishkun
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2494:Shalmaneser V
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2479:Ashur-Dan III
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2387:
2382:
2380:
2375:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2364:
2354:
2344:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2264:
2262:
2257:
2255:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2185:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2127:"Sammu-rāmat"
2124:
2120:
2118:951-45-9056-2
2114:
2110:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1992:
1990:90-04-10665-0
1986:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1947:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1875:
1872:. Cambridge:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1851:3-515-08735-4
1847:
1843:
1840:. Stuttgart:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1802:(39): 17–34.
1801:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1773:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1717:
1714:, p. 75.
1713:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1666:
1663:, p. 72.
1662:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1630:
1627:, p. 13.
1626:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1612:, p. 67.
1611:
1606:
1603:
1600:, p. 15.
1599:
1594:
1591:
1588:, p. 68.
1587:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1545:Melville 2014
1541:
1538:
1535:, p. 69.
1534:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1440:
1436:
1435:Melville 2014
1431:
1428:
1424:
1423:Melville 2014
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1398:, p. 45.
1397:
1396:Melville 2004
1392:
1390:
1386:
1383:, p. 57.
1382:
1381:Melville 2004
1377:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1352:Melville 2014
1348:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1327:, p. 14.
1326:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1281:, p. 11.
1280:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1266:, p. 44.
1265:
1264:Melville 2004
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1234:, p. 53.
1233:
1232:Melville 2004
1228:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1217:Spurrier 2017
1213:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1178:Melville 2014
1174:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1161:Spurrier 2017
1157:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1121:
1120:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1095:
1091:
1080:
1076:
1070:
1067:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1006:
1003:
999:
995:
987:
983:
979:
975:
969:
966:
959:
957:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
929:
927:
923:
919:
914:
912:
911:
910:Ninus Romance
904:
902:
898:
894:
890:
885:
881:
874:
868:
863:
858:
854:
852:
847:
843:
839:
834:
832:
828:
824:
820:
817:). Though no
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
792:
788:
784:
779:
771:
769:
761:
759:
755:
751:
746:
744:
740:
736:
731:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
697:
688:
678:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
633:
630:
626:
622:
618:
611:
607:
602:
598:
595:
594:
588:
584:
583:queen regnant
579:
569:
561:
558:
556:
550:
548:
537:
520:
509:
499:
490:
478:
473:
471:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
401:
399:
397:
394:
390:
386:
382:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
320:
309:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
257:
252:
250:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
215:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
183:
181:
177:
173:
162:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
110:
108:
104:
101:
98:
96:
92:
89:
86:
82:
75:798 BC (aged
71:
67:
60:
56:
51:
47:
41:
36:
33:
32:
27:
22:
19:
2528:
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2504:Sennacherib
2463:Shammuramat
2291:Shammuramat
1649:Dalley 2005
1625:Dalley 2005
1598:Dalley 2005
1557:Tadmor 1973
1468:Dalley 2013
1447:Kertai 2013
1369:Kertai 2013
1337:Kertai 2013
1325:Dalley 2005
1279:Dalley 2005
1149:Kertai 2013
1094:Sennacherib
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1035:Shalmaneser
1023:Adad-nirari
994:issi ekalli
990:MUNUS É.GAL
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280:Sammu-ramāt
276:Sammu-rāmat
130:Sammu-ramāt
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2643:Categories
2509:Esarhaddon
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1483:Svärd 2016
1205:Mayor 2014
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308:rāmu/rāmat
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2499:Sargon II
2465:(regent?)
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1712:Gera 1997
1700:Gera 1997
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825:and then
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813:(wife of
807:Sargon II
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647:Euphrates
464:Bit Adini
416:Levantine
358:Semeramis
354:Semiramis
339:sa(-a)-mu
219:Semiramis
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195:Babylonia
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142:Semiramis
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