1307:, and some authors consider these identical, but the connection is not strict. Open classes are generally lexical categories in the stricter sense, containing words with greater semantic content, while closed classes are normally functional categories, consisting of words that perform essentially grammatical functions. This is not universal: in many languages verbs and adjectives are closed classes, usually consisting of few members, and in Japanese the formation of new pronouns from existing nouns is relatively common, though to what extent these form a distinct word class is debated.
1326:. When a new word is added through some such process, it can subsequently be used grammatically in sentences in the same ways as other words in its class. A closed class may obtain new items through these same processes, but such changes are much rarer and take much more time. A closed class is normally seen as part of the core language and is not expected to change. In English, for example, new nouns, verbs, etc. are being added to the language constantly (including by the common process of
1210:
1512:, now used by some as a first-person pronoun. The status of Japanese pronouns as a distinct class is disputed, however, with some considering it only a use of nouns, not a distinct class. The case is similar in languages of Southeast Asia, including Thai and Lao, in which, like Japanese, pronouns and terms of address vary significantly based on relative social standing and respect.
1854:καὶ αὐτὰ εἴδη προσαγορεύεται· κύριον, προσηγορικόν, ἐπίθετον, πρός τι ἔχον, ὡς πρός τι ἔχον, ὁμώνυμον, συνώνυμον, διώνυμον, ἐπώνυμον, ἐθνικόν, ἐρωτηματικόν, ἀόριστον, ἀναφορικὸν ὃ καὶ ὁμοιωματικὸν καὶ δεικτικὸν καὶ ἀνταποδοτικὸν καλεῖται, περιληπτικόν, ἐπιμεριζόμενον, περιεκτικόν, πεποιημένον, γενικόν, ἰδικόν, τακτικόν, ἀριθμητικόν, ἀπολελυμένον, μετουσιαστικόν.
2342:
1861:: proper, appellative, adjective, relative, quasi-relative, homonym, synonym, pheronym, dionym, eponym, national, interrogative, indefinite, anaphoric (also called assimilative, demonstrative, and retributive), collective, distributive, inclusive, onomatopoetic, general, special, ordinal, numeral, participative, independent.
1562:
Ideophones do not always form a single grammatical word class, and their classification varies between languages, sometimes being split across other word classes. Rather, they are a phonosemantic word class, based on derivation, but may be considered part of the category of "expressives", which thus
1050:
recognize that the above list of eight or nine word classes is drastically simplified. For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is
1051:
unfounded, or not applicable to certain languages. Modern linguists have proposed many different schemes whereby the words of
English or other languages are placed into more specific categories and subcategories based on a more precise understanding of their grammatical functions.
659:
generally follow the pattern of the
European tradition as described above, except that participles are now usually regarded as forms of verbs rather than as a separate part of speech, and numerals are often conflated with other parts of speech: nouns
243:
Because of such variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties, analysis of parts of speech must be done for each individual language. Nevertheless, the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.
1341:
The open or closed status of word classes varies between languages, even assuming that corresponding word classes exist. Most conspicuously, in many languages verbs and adjectives form closed classes of content words. An extreme example is found in
1334:, where an existing word comes to be used in a different part of speech). However, it is very unusual for a new pronoun, for example, to become accepted in the language, even in cases where there may be felt to be a need for one, as in the case of
734:
Some traditional classifications consider articles to be adjectives, yielding eight parts of speech rather than nine. And some modern classifications define further classes in addition to these. For discussion see the sections below.
2957:
1243:
is one to which new items are very rarely added. Open classes normally contain large numbers of words, while closed classes are much smaller. Typical open classes found in
English and many other languages are
1834:
1563:
often form an open class due to the productivity of ideophones. Further, "n the vast majority of cases, however, ideophones perform an adverbial function and are closely linked with verbs."
1171:
Within a given category, subgroups of words may be identified based on more precise grammatical properties. For example, verbs may be specified according to the number and type of
1782:
1027:
might all be either verbs or nouns. In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in, "We must look to the
916:). The article is not always listed separately as its own part of speech. It is considered by some grammarians to be a type of adjective or sometimes the term '
2394:
1529:
1369:
are closely related to verbs (they can predicate a sentence, for instance). New verbal meanings are nearly always expressed periphrastically by appending
195:
Almost all languages have the word classes noun and verb, but beyond these two there are significant variations among different languages. For example:
2299:
1448:
to a noun or using it to replace the end of a word. This is mostly in casual speech for borrowed words, with the most well-established example being
1883:
1365:, verbs and adjectives are closed classes, though these are quite large, with about 700 adjectives, and verbs have opened slightly in recent years.
1482:
was almost entirely borrowed as nouns (often verbal nouns or adjectival nouns). Other languages where adjectives are closed class include
Swahili,
932:
more extensively, meaning that a given word form can often be identified as belonging to a particular part of speech and having certain additional
1054:
Common lexical category set defined by function may include the following (not all of them will necessarily be applicable in a given language):
2206:
2118:
1946:
1676:
2088:
1845:
1354:
to form compounds; this lack of lexical verbs is shared with other
Iranian languages.) Japanese is similar, having few lexical verbs.
2236:
1635:
2387:
521:): a part of speech without inflection, in modification of or in addition to a verb, adjective, clause, sentence, or other adverb
1779:
3229:
2362:
2001:
Broschart, Jürgen (1997). "Why Tongan does it differently: Categorial
Distinctions in a Language without Nouns and Verbs".
3047:
1158:
661:
408:
By the end of the 2nd century BCE, grammarians had expanded this classification scheme into eight categories, seen in the
3039:
1194:, in the sense of groups of words that form units having specific grammatical functions. Phrasal categories may include
669:
1350:
has no more than a few hundred simple verbs, a great deal of which are archaic. (Some twenty
Persian verbs are used as
2739:
2558:
2455:
2380:
1331:
1036:
1971:
Hopper, P; Thompson, S (1985). "The
Iconicity of the Universal Categories 'Noun' and 'Verbs'". In John Haiman (ed.).
2425:
2346:
1400:
3260:
3149:
2649:
2363:
Martin
Haspelmath. 2001. "Word Classes and Parts of Speech." In: Baltes, Paul B. & Smelser, Neil J. (eds.)
1479:
1315:
1137:
1119:
673:
536:
229:
82:
1807:
participle, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb, conjunction. A common noun in form is classified as a noun.
1433:. The closedness of verbs has weakened in recent years, and in a few cases new verbs are created by appending
2961:
2470:
2352:
1798:μετοχή, ἄρθρον, ἀντωνυμία, πρόθεσις, ἐπίρρημα, σύνδεσμος. ἡ γὰρ προσηγορία ὡς εἶδος τῶι ὀνόματι ὑποβέβληται.
1323:
1285:
1106:
928:
as belonging to one part of speech or another; this contrasts with many other
European languages, which use
718:
524:
31:
3095:
2922:
2831:
2295:
1524:
1335:
1311:
1127:
253:
1879:
3166:
3057:
3052:
3029:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2791:
2584:
2420:
1707:
1319:
625:
573:
The Latin names for the parts of speech, from which the corresponding modern English terms derive, were
390:
130:
122:
936:. In English, most words are uninflected, while the inflected endings that exist are mostly ambiguous:
235:
Many languages do not distinguish between adjectives and adverbs, or between adjectives and verbs (see
3171:
3105:
2937:
2894:
2796:
2659:
2619:
1515:
Some word classes are universally closed, however, including demonstratives and interrogative words.
1358:
are also a closed class, with the vast majority of verbal senses instead expressed periphrastically.
1214:
1203:
1176:
1163:
933:
925:
739:
318:
152:
classifications, which often make more precise distinctions than the traditional scheme does—include
2952:
882:). Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun with another word in the sentence.
81:
behavior (they play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences), sometimes similar
2932:
2579:
1534:
1366:
944:
824:; some can belong to either category. The most common part of speech; they are called naming words.
681:
379:
225:
203:
180:
is also used, although this has various conflicting definitions. Word classes may be classified as
1936:
1186:
Many modern descriptions of grammar include not only lexical categories or word classes, but also
3118:
3085:
3011:
2996:
2981:
2971:
2884:
2879:
2869:
2664:
2594:
2589:
2166:
2134:
2018:
1608:
1296:
1111:
665:
465:
461:
169:
878:
a word that relates words to each other in a phrase or sentence and aids in syntactic context (
643:. Later the adjective became a separate class, as often did the numerals, and the English word
3075:
3001:
2976:
2899:
2764:
2709:
2679:
2639:
2267:
2232:
2202:
2114:
2072:
2057:
1672:
1631:
1600:
1494:
1362:
1180:
1115:
481:
457:
402:
252:
The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the
221:
199:
134:
2326:
2282:
2226:
2185:
2084:
2042:
1908:
1497:
are an open class and nouns become used as pronouns with some frequency; a recent example is
3255:
3113:
3006:
2986:
2836:
2801:
2719:
2514:
2146:
2010:
1592:
1347:
1343:
1172:
677:
489:
431:
371:
213:
207:
94:
3021:
2942:
2904:
2889:
2769:
2759:
2674:
2669:
2609:
2475:
2445:
1849:
1838:
1823:
1786:
1775:
1253:
1209:
656:
488:): a declinable part of speech, taken to include the definite article, but also the basic
415:
217:
1272:
are often an open class, though less familiar to English speakers, and are often open to
531:): a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation
77:
properties. Words that are assigned to the same part of speech generally display similar
2372:
188:(typically including nouns, verbs and adjectives) acquire new members constantly, while
3203:
3161:
3123:
3025:
2754:
2744:
2734:
2629:
2624:
2604:
2599:
2528:
1483:
1096:
1035:." The process whereby a word comes to be used as a different part of speech is called
563:
410:
342:
337:
1727:
Early Tamil Epigraphy - From the Earliest Times to the Sixth century C.E., 2nd Edition
389:
added another class, "conjunction" , which included not only the words known today as
3249:
3128:
3080:
2947:
2927:
2806:
2724:
2704:
2654:
2634:
2614:
2022:
1596:
1304:
1226:
1123:
551:
173:
3217:
3191:
3181:
3154:
3016:
2749:
2714:
2689:
2644:
2465:
1941:
1612:
1355:
1300:
1265:
1230:
1133:
1086:
766:
751:
723:
567:
236:
126:
70:
50:
1910:
Comeniana Grammatica Primae Classi Franckenthalensis Latinae Scholae destinata ...
1803:
Speech is the putting together of an ordinary word to express a complete thought.
1712:
The word and the world: India's contribution to the study of language (Chapter 3)
192:(such as pronouns and conjunctions) acquire new members infrequently, if at all.
2874:
2684:
2563:
2524:
2489:
2480:
1277:
1199:
1195:
765:
The classification below, or slight expansions of it, is still followed in most
713:
610:
504:
398:
393:, but also other parts (the interpretations differ; in one interpretation it is
322:
149:
118:
1905:
Grammaire générale, ou exposition raisonnée des éléments nécessaires du langage
1842:
358:(part of speech which modifies the relationships between verbs and nouns), and
346:, argued to have been written around 2nd century CE, classifies Tamil words as
17:
3234:
3133:
3090:
3067:
2991:
2826:
2729:
2699:
2694:
2548:
2543:
2450:
2440:
2430:
2014:
1988:
Une grammaire omniprédicative: essai sur la morphosyntaxe du nahuatl classique
1975:. Vol. 6. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 151–183.
1351:
1281:
1273:
1142:
929:
917:
817:
728:
471:
330:
138:
86:
1604:
172:; for them the term excludes those parts of speech that are considered to be
3224:
3186:
2966:
2783:
2538:
2484:
2460:
1959:...the school tradition about parts of speech is so desperately impoverished
1269:
1257:
1065:
1047:
821:
698:
618:
562:
500 CE) modified the above eightfold system, excluding "article" (since the
544:
443:
386:
106:
2357:
2341:
1925:
by Bas Aarts, Sylvia Chalker & Edmund Weine. OUP Oxford 2014. Page 35.
1003:
Many English words can belong to more than one part of speech. Words like
511:): a part of speech placed before other words in composition and in syntax
3213:
3208:
2150:
948:
may mark a plural noun, a possessive noun, or a present-tense verb form;
555:
275:
271:
90:
834:). Pronouns make sentences shorter and clearer since they replace nouns.
3198:
2914:
2519:
2435:
1487:
1327:
1289:
1153:
1148:
942:
may mark a verbal past tense, a participle or a fully adjectival form;
708:
559:
494:
446:, proper nouns, appellatives, collectives, ordinals, numerals and more.
394:
266:
114:
74:
38:
1819:
684:, e.g., "singly"). Eight or nine parts of speech are commonly listed:
3176:
2861:
2553:
2533:
1261:
1191:
1101:
1070:
955:
703:
540:
514:
308:
110:
78:
501:): a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for a person
27:
Category of words based on shared grammatical properties in a clause
1202:(VP) and so on. Lexical and phrasal categories together are called
862:). Without a verb, a group of words cannot be a clause or sentence.
844:). Adjectives make the meaning of another word (noun) more precise.
385:, "sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs and nouns ".
2222:
Categorial Features: A Generative Theory of Word Class Categories,
1346:, which has only three verbs, while even the modern Indo-European
1295:
The open–closed distinction is related to the distinction between
1208:
976:) do not have that ending, while many adjectives do have it (e.g.
776:
a word or lexical item denoting any abstract (abstract noun: e.g.
375:
1831:
2499:
2412:
2365:
International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences
1249:
1245:
1239:
is one that commonly accepts the addition of new words, while a
1080:
1075:
950:
693:
688:
449:
439:
434:, signifying a concrete or abstract entity. It includes various
298:
287:
102:
98:
2376:
456:): a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for
333:(nouns and verbs) and uninflectable (pre-verbs and particles).
1794:λόγος δέ ἐστι πεζῆς λέξεως σύνθεσις διάνοιαν αὐτοτελῆ δηλοῦσα.
960:
938:
1399:, and new adjectival meanings are nearly always expressed by
478:): a part of speech sharing features of the verb and the noun
2085:"Sample Entry: Function Words / Encyclopedia of Linguistics"
617:, corresponding to what are today called nouns in English),
1805:
The class of word consists of eight categories: noun, verb,
1310:
Words are added to open classes through such processes as
468:, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone
1478:. This recent innovation aside, the huge contribution of
988:), as do occasional words in other parts of speech (e.g.
888:
a syntactic connector; links words, phrases, or clauses (
535:
It can be seen that these parts of speech are defined by
1764:
The Rhetoric, Poetic and Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle
738:
Additionally, there are other parts of speech including
1418:
when an adjectival noun modifies a noun phrase, as in
902:). Interjections express strong feelings and emotions.
1973:
Typological Studies in Language: Iconicity and Syntax
1671:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 35.
1553:
Yes and no are sometimes classified as interjections.
868:
a modifier of an adjective, verb, or another adverb (
762:) although many fewer words are in these categories.
631:. This is reflected in the older English terminology
1628:
Describing morphosyntax: a guide for field linguists
566:, unlike Greek, does not have articles) but adding "
3142:
3104:
3066:
3038:
2913:
2860:
2782:
2572:
2507:
2498:
2411:
1792:λέξις ἐστὶ μέρος ἐλάχιστον τοῦ κατὰ σύνταξιν λόγου.
1766:, translated by Thomas Taylor, London 1811, p. 179.
1145:(prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)
1662:
1660:
329:These four were grouped into two larger classes:
69:) is a category of words (or, more generally, of
1801:A word is the smallest part of organized speech.
1093:Categories that will usually be closed classes:
964:is a frequent adverb marker, some adverbs (e.g.
892:). Conjunctions connect words or group of words.
2164:Adjective classes: a cross-linguistic typology,
2137:(1977). "Where Have all the Adjectives Gone?".
2113:. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 51–52.
1498:
1464:
1449:
1434:
1419:
1404:
1385:
1370:
2201:. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. p. 171.
1505:
1471:
1456:
1441:
1426:
1411:
1392:
1377:
1256:, if these are regarded as a separate class),
1235:Word classes may be either open or closed. An
1213:A diagram showing some of the posited English
895:Interjection (expresses feelings and emotions)
370:A century or two after the work of Yāska, the
362:(word that further qualifies a noun or verb).
2388:
1742:Tholkappiyam in English with critical studies
270:, written in the 6th or 5th century BCE, the
8:
1059:
181:
2169:, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, OUP Oxford, 2006
2068:G. Tucker Childs, "African ideophones", in
2053:G. Tucker Childs, "African ideophones", in
1907:(Paris, 1767), and earlier Jakob Redinger,
1530:Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging
2504:
2395:
2381:
2373:
2318:
2316:
2177:
2175:
2034:
2032:
1796:τοῦ δὲ λόγου μέρη ἐστὶν ὀκτώ· ὄνομα, ῥῆμα,
780:) or concrete entity (concrete noun: e.g.
2225:Panagiotidis, Phoevos (4 December 2014).
1630:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
647:came to be applied to substantives only.
2296:"Homage to る(ru), The Magical Verbifier"
1923:The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar
830:a substitute for a noun or noun phrase (
89:for similar properties and even similar
2264:The Typology of Adjectival Predication,
1575:
1546:
336:The ancient work on the grammar of the
278:defined four main categories of words:
2323:The Art of Grammar: A Practical Guide,
2279:The Art of Grammar: A Practical Guide,
2182:The Art of Grammar: A Practical Guide,
2039:The Art of Grammar: A Practical Guide,
1744:(2nd ed.). Educational Publisher.
1583:Rijkhoff, Jan (2007). "Word Classes".
958:, or pure adjective or noun. Although
908:a grammatical marker of definiteness (
898:an emotional greeting or exclamation (
872:). Adverbs make language more precise.
168:to refer only to a particular type of
2251:
1949:from the original on 27 December 2009
1778:. τέχνη γραμματική (Art of Grammar),
7:
2367:. Amsterdam: Pergamon, 16538–16545.
1880:"Quintilian: Institutio Oratoria I"
816:). Nouns can also be classified as
1903:See for example Beauzée, Nicolas,
1780:ια´ περὶ λέξεως (11. On the word)
1669:Analyzing Grammar: An Introduction
827:Pronoun (replaces or places again)
430:": a part of speech inflected for
25:
2111:Syntax: A Generative Introduction
1297:lexical and functional categories
840:a modifier of a noun or pronoun (
164:. Some authors restrict the term
2340:
1935:Zwicky, Arnold (30 March 2006).
1696:(4th ed.). London: Longman.
1597:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2007.00030.x
1585:Language and Linguistics Compass
1179:which they take. This is called
1058:Categories that will usually be
924:English words are not generally
2302:from the original on 2021-01-15
2091:from the original on 2018-08-30
1886:from the original on 2012-01-20
1841:translated by Thomas Davidson,
676:, e.g., "single") and adverbs (
2231:. Cambridge University Press.
1937:"What part of speech is "the""
668:, e.g., "dozen"), adjectives (
85:behavior in that they undergo
1:
1276:. Typical closed classes are
847:Verb (states action or being)
837:Adjective (describes, limits)
176:, such as pronouns. The term
2358:Guide to Grammar and Writing
1913:(1659, in German and Latin).
920:' (a broader class) is used.
30:For the album by Dessa, see
1499:
1465:
1450:
1435:
1420:
1405:
1386:
1371:
905:Article (describes, limits)
850:a word denoting an action (
204:three classes of adjectives
3277:
3230:Syntax–semantics interface
1224:
865:Adverb (describes, limits)
321:, invariant word (perhaps
93:behavior. Commonly listed
29:
2325:Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald,
2281:Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald,
2184:Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald,
2041:Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald,
2015:10.1515/lity.1997.1.2.123
1626:Payne, Thomas E. (1997).
1506:
1472:
1457:
1442:
1427:
1412:
1393:
1378:
1043:Functional classification
2650:Exceptional case-marking
1480:Sino-Japanese vocabulary
1461:, cut class; play hooky)
1083:(except auxiliary verbs)
148:—particularly in modern
2109:Carnie, Andrew (2012).
1990:. Paris: CNRS Editions.
1986:Launey, Michel (1994).
1336:gender-neutral pronouns
1221:Open and closed classes
954:may mark a participle,
678:multiplicative numerals
32:Parts of Speech (album)
2456:Initial-stress-derived
1740:Ilakkuvanar S (1994).
1725:Mahadevan, I. (2014).
1667:Krueger, Paul (2005).
1525:Part-of-speech tagging
1299:, and to that between
1217:
934:grammatical properties
885:Conjunction (connects)
858:), or state of being (
254:history of linguistics
2967:Inclusive / Exclusive
1708:Bimal Krishna Matilal
1591:(6). Wiley: 709–726.
1212:
912:) or indefiniteness (
875:Preposition (relates)
682:distributive numerals
672:, e.g., "first", and
290:(including adjective)
2349:at Wikimedia Commons
2199:Language Development
2197:Hoff, Erika (2014).
2151:10.1075/sl.1.1.04dix
1280:(or postpositions),
1215:syntactic categories
1204:syntactic categories
1039:or zero derivation.
680:, e.g., "once", and
97:parts of speech are
73:) that have similar
67:grammatical category
2847:Relative subsective
2740:Regular / Irregular
2585:Andative / Venitive
2421:Abstract / Concrete
2353:The parts of speech
2294:Adam (2011-07-18).
2139:Studies in Language
2135:Dixon, Robert M. W.
2003:Linguistic Typology
1694:General Linguistics
1654:, CUP 1977, p. 424.
1535:Traditional grammar
1403:, using the suffix
1397:, to (do) exercise)
1367:Japanese adjectives
1330:and other types of
1190:, used to classify
674:multiplier numerals
666:collective numerals
664:, e.g., "one", and
230:nominal classifiers
2406:and their features
2404:Lexical categories
2167:Robert M. W. Dixon
1848:2020-08-04 at the
1837:2022-09-10 at the
1830:(Art of Grammar),
1785:2015-03-15 at the
1692:Robins RH (1989).
1218:
1188:phrasal categories
622:(nomen adjectivum)
615:nomen substantivum
170:syntactic category
3243:
3242:
3048:Casally modulated
2953:Formal / Informal
2842:Pure intersective
2792:Anti-intersective
2778:
2777:
2725:Preterite-present
2345:Media related to
2208:978-1-133-93909-2
2120:978-0-470-65531-3
1832:14. Περὶ ὀνόματος
1678:978-0-521-01653-7
1495:Japanese pronouns
1384:to a noun, as in
1181:subcategorization
1159:cardinal numerals
1031:and not just the
662:cardinal numerals
426:) translated as "
366:Western tradition
144:Other terms than
16:(Redirected from
3268:
2822:Non-intersective
2505:
2397:
2390:
2383:
2374:
2344:
2329:
2320:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2307:
2291:
2285:
2276:
2270:
2261:
2255:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2194:
2188:
2179:
2170:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2081:
2075:
2070:Sound Symbolism,
2066:
2060:
2055:Sound Symbolism,
2051:
2045:
2036:
2027:
2026:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1954:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1876:
1870:
1864:
1828:Τέχνη γραμματική
1816:
1810:
1773:
1767:
1761:
1755:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1664:
1655:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1580:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1511:
1509:
1508:
1502:
1477:
1475:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1430:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1408:
1401:adjectival nouns
1398:
1396:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1374:
670:ordinal numerals
633:noun substantive
629:(nomen numerale)
490:relative pronoun
414:, attributed to
228:have a class of
166:lexical category
162:lexical category
61:, also known as
21:
3276:
3275:
3271:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3261:Parts of speech
3246:
3245:
3244:
3239:
3138:
3100:
3062:
3034:
2962:Gender-specific
2909:
2856:
2774:
2660:Germanic strong
2568:
2494:
2407:
2401:
2347:Parts of speech
2337:
2332:
2321:
2314:
2305:
2303:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2277:
2273:
2266:Harrie Wetzer,
2262:
2258:
2250:
2246:
2239:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2180:
2173:
2162:
2158:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2094:
2092:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2067:
2063:
2052:
2048:
2037:
2030:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1952:
1950:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1921:
1917:
1902:
1898:
1889:
1887:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1867:
1850:Wayback Machine
1839:Wayback Machine
1824:Dionysius Thrax
1817:
1813:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1787:Wayback Machine
1776:Dionysius Thrax
1774:
1770:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1679:
1666:
1665:
1658:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1567:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1521:
1503:
1469:
1454:
1439:
1424:
1409:
1390:
1375:
1254:auxiliary verbs
1233:
1223:
1097:auxiliary verbs
1045:
854:), occurrence (
822:non-count nouns
812:), or quality (
760:notwithstanding
657:English grammar
653:
605:. The category
416:Dionysius Thrax
368:
350:(பெயர்; noun),
262:
250:
202:has as many as
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Open class word
15:
12:
11:
5:
3274:
3272:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3248:
3247:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3206:
3204:Procedure word
3201:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3162:Complementizer
3159:
3158:
3157:
3146:
3144:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3110:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3072:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3044:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2958:Gender-neutral
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2923:Bound variable
2919:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2866:
2864:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2788:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2580:Ambitransitive
2576:
2574:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2522:
2517:
2511:
2509:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2487:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2417:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2402:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2385:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2336:
2335:External links
2333:
2331:
2330:
2312:
2286:
2271:
2256:
2244:
2237:
2214:
2207:
2189:
2171:
2156:
2126:
2119:
2101:
2076:
2061:
2046:
2028:
2009:(2): 123–165.
1993:
1978:
1963:
1927:
1915:
1896:
1871:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1855:
1811:
1809:
1808:
1799:
1768:
1756:
1747:
1732:
1729:. p. 271.
1717:
1699:
1684:
1677:
1656:
1643:
1636:
1618:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1555:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1520:
1517:
1431:, strange man)
1305:function words
1222:
1219:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1140:
1131:
1124:demonstratives
1109:
1104:
1099:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1084:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1044:
1041:
922:
921:
906:
903:
896:
893:
886:
883:
876:
873:
866:
863:
848:
845:
838:
835:
828:
825:
786:police officer
774:
732:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
652:
651:Classification
649:
637:noun adjective
564:Latin language
533:
532:
522:
512:
502:
492:
479:
469:
447:
411:Art of Grammar
367:
364:
354:(வினை; verb),
338:Tamil language
327:
326:
311:
307:– pre-verb or
301:
291:
261:
258:
249:
246:
241:
240:
233:
211:
190:closed classes
182:open or closed
174:function words
146:part of speech
47:part-of-speech
43:part of speech
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3273:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3119:Interrogative
3117:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3086:Interrogative
3084:
3082:
3081:Demonstrative
3079:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3031:
3030:Prepositional
3027:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3017:Strong / Weak
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2982:Interrogative
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2928:Demonstrative
2926:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2895:Prepositional
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2885:Interrogative
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2807:Demonstrative
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2665:Germanic weak
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2655:Frequentative
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2595:Autocausative
2593:
2591:
2590:Anticausative
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2559:Transgressive
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2398:
2393:
2391:
2386:
2384:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2368:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2324:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2257:
2254:, p. 48.
2253:
2248:
2245:
2240:
2238:9781316194638
2234:
2230:
2229:
2223:
2218:
2215:
2210:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2165:
2160:
2157:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2127:
2122:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2102:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1989:
1982:
1979:
1974:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1938:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1812:
1800:
1791:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1760:
1757:
1754:Cratylus 431b
1751:
1748:
1743:
1736:
1733:
1728:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1685:
1680:
1674:
1670:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1647:
1644:
1639:
1637:9780511805066
1633:
1629:
1622:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1579:
1576:
1570:
1559:
1556:
1550:
1547:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1501:
1496:
1493:By contrast,
1491:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1467:
1452:
1437:
1422:
1421:hen-na ojisan
1407:
1402:
1388:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1339:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1301:content words
1298:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1266:interjections
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1228:
1227:Function word
1220:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1134:measure words
1132:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1087:interjections
1085:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1001:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
962:
957:
953:
952:
947:
946:
941:
940:
935:
931:
927:
919:
915:
911:
907:
904:
901:
897:
894:
891:
887:
884:
881:
877:
874:
871:
867:
864:
861:
857:
853:
849:
846:
843:
839:
836:
833:
829:
826:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
784:); a person (
783:
779:
775:
772:
771:
770:
768:
763:
761:
757:
753:
752:postpositions
749:
745:
741:
736:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
686:
685:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
658:
650:
648:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
627:
623:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
571:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
548:
546:
542:
538:
537:morphological
530:
526:
523:
520:
516:
513:
510:
506:
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3155:Measure word
2938:Distributive
2832:Postpositive
2812:Intersective
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2710:Performative
2680:Intransitive
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1278:prepositions
1241:closed class
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1200:verb phrases
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3167:Conjunction
2933:Disjunctive
2870:Conjunctive
2817:Nominalized
2720:Predicative
2564:Verbal noun
2515:Attributive
1953:26 December
1843:On the noun
1476:, sabotage)
1352:light verbs
1312:compounding
1282:determiners
1274:nonce words
1252:(excluding
1177:complements
1143:adpositions
1138:classifiers
1128:possessives
1120:quantifiers
1112:determiners
870:very, quite
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714:preposition
603:interjectio
591:praepositio
583:participium
554:grammarian
525:Conjunction
505:Preposition
343:Tolkāppiyam
331:inflectable
323:preposition
274:grammarian
123:conjunction
119:preposition
75:grammatical
51:abbreviated
3250:Categories
3235:Yes and no
3150:Classifier
3134:Possessive
3096:Quantifier
3091:Possessive
3068:Determiner
3040:Adposition
3012:Resumptive
2997:Reciprocal
2992:Possessive
2972:Indefinite
2900:Pronominal
2852:Subsective
2827:Possessive
2797:Collateral
2770:Unergative
2760:Transitive
2675:Inchoative
2670:Impersonal
2610:Catenative
2549:Participle
2544:Infinitive
2476:Relational
2446:Collective
2426:Adjectival
2306:2015-02-22
2252:Dixon 1977
2095:2014-12-21
1890:2015-09-18
1818:The term '
1571:References
1332:conversion
1316:derivation
1270:Ideophones
1258:adjectives
1237:open class
1225:See also:
1066:adjectives
1037:conversion
930:inflection
918:determiner
842:big, brave
806:television
800:), thing (
792:), place (
729:determiner
619:adjectives
599:conjunctio
547:criteria.
472:Participle
444:adjectives
401:, and the
226:Vietnamese
178:form class
154:word class
150:linguistic
139:determiner
87:inflection
63:word class
3225:Prop-word
3187:Ideophone
3114:Discourse
3053:Inflected
3002:Reflexive
2977:Intensive
2784:Adjective
2755:Stretched
2745:Separable
2735:Reflexive
2630:Denominal
2625:Defective
2605:Captative
2600:Auxiliary
2539:Gerundive
2529:Nonfinite
2451:Countable
2145:: 19–80.
2023:121039930
1652:Semantics
1605:1749-818X
1387:undō suru
1324:borrowing
1175:or other
1164:particles
1048:Linguists
1025:telephone
1021:microwave
810:happiness
808:), idea (
794:coastline
740:particles
699:adjective
655:Works of
609:included
595:adverbium
541:syntactic
529:sýndesmos
519:epírrhēma
509:próthesis
499:antōnymíā
387:Aristotle
107:adjective
79:syntactic
3214:Pro-verb
3209:Pro-form
3106:Particle
3058:Stranded
3007:Relative
2987:Personal
2905:Relative
2890:Locative
2880:Genitive
2705:Negative
2635:Deponent
2615:Compound
2300:Archived
2089:Archived
1947:Archived
1884:Archived
1846:Archived
1835:Archived
1783:Archived
1710:(1990).
1519:See also
1466:sabotāju
1382:, to do)
1363:Japanese
1290:pronouns
1154:pronouns
1149:preverbs
1116:articles
978:friendly
966:tomorrow
890:and, but
832:them, he
626:numerals
587:pronomen
556:Priscian
545:semantic
422:'Name' (
395:pronouns
383:dialogue
381:Cratylus
374:scholar
319:particle
305:upasarga
272:Sanskrit
222:Japanese
210:has one.
206:, where
200:Japanese
91:semantic
3256:Grammar
3199:Preverb
3076:Article
3022:Subject
2915:Pronoun
2750:Stative
2715:Phrasal
2690:Lexical
2645:Dynamic
2620:Copular
2520:Converb
2436:Animacy
1859:Species
1613:5404720
1510:, self)
1488:Luganda
1463:, from
1451:sabo-ru
1348:Persian
1344:Jingulu
1328:verbing
1320:coining
1262:adverbs
1192:phrases
1173:objects
1102:coverbs
1071:adverbs
814:bravery
802:necktie
790:Michael
709:pronoun
495:Pronoun
486:árthron
482:Article
476:metokhḗ
436:species
403:article
303:उपसर्ग
295:ākhyāta
293:आख्यात
267:Nirukta
264:In the
248:History
214:Chinese
208:English
135:article
131:numeral
115:pronoun
95:English
39:grammar
3177:Coverb
3172:Copula
3026:Object
2943:Donkey
2862:Adverb
2837:Proper
2802:Common
2685:Labile
2554:Supine
2534:Gerund
2525:Finite
2490:Verbal
2481:Strong
2471:Proper
2268:p. 311
2235:
2205:
2117:
2073:p. 181
2058:p. 179
2021:
1675:
1634:
1611:
1603:
1486:, and
1473:サボタージュ
1428:変なおじさん
1322:, and
1288:, and
1198:(NP),
1126:, and
1023:, and
1013:outlaw
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956:gerund
926:marked
880:in, of
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750:) and
704:adverb
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515:Adverb
466:number
462:person
315:nipāta
313:निपात
309:prefix
218:Korean
160:, and
137:, and
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3143:Other
3124:Modal
2948:Dummy
2700:Modal
2695:Light
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2508:Forms
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2369:(PDF)
2327:p. 98
2283:p. 96
2228:p. 54
2186:p. 97
2043:p. 99
2019:S2CID
1822:' at
1820:onoma
1609:S2CID
1541:Notes
1500:jibun
1484:Bemba
1250:verbs
1246:nouns
1081:verbs
1076:nouns
1017:laser
1009:break
1005:neigh
990:jelly
914:a, an
782:house
607:nomen
575:nomen
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458:tense
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424:ónoma
376:Plato
372:Greek
352:vinai
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276:Yāska
260:India
3129:Noun
2875:Flat
2730:Pure
2500:Verb
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2461:Mass
2441:Bare
2413:Noun
2233:ISBN
2203:ISBN
2115:ISBN
1955:2009
1673:ISBN
1632:ISBN
1601:ISSN
1394:運動する
1372:suru
1303:and
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1229:and
1033:whys
1029:hows
998:rely
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974:very
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951:-ing
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550:The
543:and
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450:Verb
432:case
428:Noun
356:idai
299:verb
288:noun
284:nāma
282:नाम
224:and
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2147:doi
2011:doi
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1436:-ru
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744:yes
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