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orientation how they could influence their understanding of social justice and further make them implement different leadership practices for diverse schools. Specifically, the researchers provided various explanations of the pervasive performance gap that sees white children outperforming their black or Latino classmates on standardised tests, academics, and school completion based on the
Bennett Scale as a theoretical framework. Education professionals may rationalize school policies and activities for cultural diversity and help achieve cultural equality in the educational environment by determining which of the six phases of intercultural sensitivity the particular principal is in. For instance, a principal in minimization phase may organize international cuisine festivals in the school, or use cultural and heritage festivals as opportunities for intercultural education. But since it overlooks cultural distinctions, the school might not consider to launch a multicultural program or make curriculum changes that respect students' cultural nuances.
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Bennett Scale as an analytical model, coded and quantitatively analyzed data of cross-cultural sensitivity among 48 students from multicultural backgrounds receiving university general education. According to the findings, a diversity curriculum that motivates students to share and practice their viewpoints on social issues is more likely to foster empathy and raise levels of cross-cultural sensitivity than one that only emphasizes information comprehension with assignments including material reading and essay writing.
291:'s Five steps in Issue Management model, Radu Dumitrascu developed a new corporate adaption model and follow-up intercultural communication approaches for international business. According to how they handle cultural diversity and cultural affiliations and localize themselves through communication, structural adjustments, strategies, and tactics, five types of organizations are defined: denying/intransigent, minimizing/resistant, minimizing/cooperative, adaptive/cooperative, integrative.
188:. People at this position appreciate and accept the existence of culturally different ways of organizing human existence, although they do not necessarily like or agree with every way. They can identify how culture affects a wide range of human experience and they have a framework for organizing observations of cultural difference. We recognize people from this stage through their desire to be informed or proactively learn about alien cultures, and not to confirm prejudices.
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seemingly benign acceptance may change to aggressive attempts to avoid or eliminate it. Most of the time, this is a result of physical or social isolation, where the person's views are never challenged and are at the center of their reality. Members of dominant culture are more likely to have a denial orientation towards
174:. People at this position are likely to assume that they are no longer ethnocentric, and they tend to overestimate their tolerance while underestimating the effect (e.g. “privilege”) of their own culture. They usually assumes that our own set of fundamental behavioral categories are absolute and universal.
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Another study applied
Bennett Scale to the curriculum of university general education courses. In the current context of globalization and growing diversity in schools, experiencing and learning about cultural differences in the school environment is an important instructional method. This study used
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Organized into six stages of increasing sensitivity to difference, the DMIS identifies the underlying cognitive orientations individuals use to understand cultural difference. Each position along the continuum represents increasingly complex perceptual organizations of cultural difference, which in
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Schools play an important role in shaping the multicultural perspective of students. A study published in 2011 by Frank
Hernandez and Brad W. Kose found that the Bennett Scale provides a robust measure of principals' cultural competence in terms of how they understand differences. Principals' DMIS
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Individuals are able to expand their own worldviews to accurately understand other cultures and behave in a variety of culturally appropriate ways. In this stage, multicultural participants start to develop intercultural communication skills, change their communication styles, and effectively use
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One's experience of self is expanded to include the movement in and out of different cultural worldviews. People at this position have a definition of self that is "marginal" (not central) to any particular culture, allowing this individual to shift rather smoothly from one cultural worldview to
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Individuals experience their own culture as the only "real" one, while other cultures are either not noticed at all or are understood in an undifferentiated, simplistic manner. People at this position are generally uninterested in cultural difference, but when confronted with difference their
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turn allow increasingly sophisticated experiences of other cultures. By identifying the underlying experience of cultural difference, predictions about behavior and attitudes can be made and education can be tailored to facilitate development along the continuum. The first three stages are
159:. They will openly belittle the differences among their culture and another, denigrating race, gender or any other indicator of difference. People at this position are more openly threatened by cultural difference and more likely to be acting aggressively against it.
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Differences are acknowledged, but they are denigrated rather than embraced. Rather, one' s own culture is experienced as the most "evolved" or best way to live. This position is characterized by dualistic us/them thinking and frequently accompanied by overt negative
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as central to reality. Climbing the scale, one develops a more and more ethnorelative point of view, meaning that one experiences one's own culture as in the context of other cultures. By the fourth stage, ethnocentric views are replaced by ethnorelative views.
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Besides, several researchers report a struggle to determine participants' orientation within the six stages of
Bennett Scale due to the lack of transitional middle ground between stages. The model is also critiqued for working well in nations where
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People recognize superficial cultural differences in food, customs, etc. and have somewhat positive view about cultural differences. But they still emphasize human similarity in physical structure, psychological needs, and/or assumed adherence to
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Bennett Scale is recognized for defining clear ethnocentric and ethnorelative stages, however, it is also considered by some scholars to be too idealistic to be practiced in the reality. Primary critiques include:
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Bennett Scale has mostly been applied to analysis on people's cross-cultural sensitivity, but some scholars have expanded its application to organizational communications. Informed by
Bennett Scale and
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101:. Bennett's initial idea was for trainers to utilize the model to evaluate trainees' intercultural awareness and help them improve intercultural sensitivity, also sometimes referred to as
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in cross-cultural communication. During these three phases, a person gradually treats all culture as reasonable and try to understand every behavior from the aspect of cultures behind.
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is easily embraced, like the United States, but its practical applicability in isolated or undeveloped nations where people have little exposure to other cultures is still questioned.
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in cross-cultural communication. During these three phases, a person sees their original culture as the most superior one and takes it as the criteria to judge other cultures.
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empathy or frame of reference shifting, to understand and be understood across cultural boundaries. At this stage, one is able to act properly outside of one's own culture.
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another. At this point, a will to comprehend and adopt various beliefs and norms begins to emerge, demonstrating a high level of intercultural sensitivity.
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Assume monocultural origin and no previous contact with other cultures, which does not take into account people from multicultural backgrounds
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In his theory, Bennett describes what changes occur when evolving through each step of the scale. Summarized, they are the following:
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683:. Enid Lee, Deborah Menkart, Margo Okazawa-Rey, Teaching for Change (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Teaching for Change. 2002.
733:"Exploring the Application of a Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity to a General Education Curriculum on Diversity"
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Beyond heroes and holidays : a practical guide to K-12 anti-racist, multicultural education and staff development
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Turner, D. A. (1991). Assessing the intercultural sensitivity of
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Liddicoat, Anthony J; Papademetre, Leo; Scarino, Angela; Kohler, Michelle (2003).
581:. William A. Owings, Leslie S. Kaplan. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press. 2003.
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Does not apply to short-term cultural adaptation because of its progressive nature
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Developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (Six stages of
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Best practices, best thinking, and emerging issues in school leadership
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Hammer, Mitchell R.; Bennett, Milton J.; Wiseman, Richard (July 2003).
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One's own culture is experienced as one of a number of equally complex
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353:. Special Issue: Theories and Methods in Cross-Cultural Orientation.
347:"A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity"
53:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
783:. Anne Colby (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 2003.
235:: the person acquires an awareness of difference between cultures
247:: the subject grasps the importance of intercultural difference.
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Neglect the relationship between interculturality and language
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Application of
Bennett scale for the study of various topics
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850:. Canberra: Department of Education, Science and Training.
253:: exploration and research into the other culture begins
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Corporate-Adaptation in International Public Relations
259:: subject develops empathy towards the other culture.
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864:(Doctoral dissertation, Ohio University).
848:Report on intercultural language learning
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829:Dumitrascu, Radu (2008-07-09).
501:10.1002/9781118783665.ieicc0182
408:Theories of human communication
405:Littlejohn, Stephen W. (2021).
245:From minimization to acceptance
1449:High- and low-context cultures
257:From adaptation to integration
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251:From acceptance to adaptation
2015:Culture and social cognition
1000:Cross-cultural communication
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239:From defense to minimization
2097:Intercultural communication
637:Education and Urban Society
282:Intercultural communication
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1207:Resistance through culture
295:Critiques of Bennett scale
165:Minimization of difference
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1005:Cross-cultural leadership
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205:Integration of difference
2112:Living things in culture
2102:Intercultural competence
2005:Culture and menstruation
1504:Trans-cultural diffusion
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194:Adaptation to difference
180:Acceptance of difference
1923:Cultural homogenization
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1087:Popular culture studies
1072:Intercultural relations
224:Evolutionary strategies
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1555:Cultural backwardness
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150:Defense of difference
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2092:Emotions and culture
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860:Kashima, T. (2006).
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1580:Cultural diplomacy
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142:cultural diversity
85:, also called the
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1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
992:
986:
984:
980:
979:
977:
976:
974:Culture theory
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
935:
933:
929:
928:
918:
915:
914:
909:
907:
906:
899:
892:
884:
876:
875:
866:
853:
838:
818:
789:
770:
743:(3): 311–334.
718:
689:
670:
643:(4): 512–530.
616:
587:
568:
549:(4): 421–443.
524:
509:
446:
417:
376:
357:(2): 179–196.
329:
328:
326:
323:
314:
313:
310:
306:
305:
296:
293:
283:
280:
270:
267:
265:
262:
261:
260:
254:
248:
242:
236:
225:
222:
214:
213:
212:
211:
202:
201:
200:
191:
190:
189:
177:
176:
175:
162:
161:
160:
147:
146:
145:
123:
120:
95:Milton Bennett
77:
76:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2256:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2217:
2216:
2207:
2205:
2204:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2183:
2182:
2179:
2173:
2172:Youth culture
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2157:Urban culture
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2142:Remix culture
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2117:Media culture
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2107:Languaculture
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2035:Culture shock
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1995:Cultural turn
1993:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1863:Bennett scale
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1793:Protestantism
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1735:Biculturalism
1733:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1499:Technoculture
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1479:Print culture
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1444:Enculturation
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1364:Cultural icon
1362:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1305:Cultural bias
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1285:Cultural area
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1270:Acculturation
1268:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1244:Super culture
1242:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1158:Legal culture
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1107:Sound culture
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
997:
996:
993:
991:
988:
987:
985:
981:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
936:
934:
930:
926:
916:
912:
905:
900:
898:
893:
891:
886:
885:
882:
870:
867:
863:
857:
854:
849:
842:
839:
834:
833:
825:
823:
819:
814:
808:
800:
796:
792:
786:
782:
781:
774:
771:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
727:
725:
723:
719:
714:
708:
700:
696:
692:
690:1-878554-17-4
686:
682:
681:
674:
671:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
627:
625:
623:
621:
617:
612:
606:
598:
594:
590:
588:0-7619-7862-3
584:
580:
579:
572:
569:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
533:
531:
529:
525:
520:
516:
512:
510:9781118783948
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
483:
481:
479:
477:
475:
473:
471:
469:
467:
465:
463:
461:
459:
457:
455:
453:
451:
447:
442:
436:
428:
424:
420:
414:
410:
409:
401:
399:
397:
395:
393:
391:
389:
387:
385:
383:
381:
377:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
341:
339:
337:
335:
331:
324:
322:
320:
311:
308:
307:
303:
302:
301:
294:
292:
290:
281:
279:
275:
268:
263:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
231:
230:
229:
223:
221:
219:
208:
207:
206:
203:
197:
196:
195:
192:
187:
183:
182:
181:
178:
173:
168:
167:
166:
163:
158:
153:
152:
151:
148:
143:
138:
137:
136:
133:
132:
131:
129:
128:ethnocentrism
121:
119:
116:
112:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
83:Bennett scale
73:
70:
62:
52:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
21:
20:
2220:
2213:
2201:
2189:
2137:Rape culture
2082:Drug culture
2070:Deaf culture
2055:Cyberculture
2025:Culture hero
1938:Cultural lag
1878:Civilization
1862:
1778:Christianity
1484:Protoculture
1168:Microculture
1148:High culture
1143:Folk culture
1092:Postcritique
869:
861:
856:
847:
841:
831:
779:
773:
740:
736:
679:
673:
640:
636:
577:
571:
546:
542:
492:
407:
354:
350:
315:
298:
285:
276:
272:
256:
250:
244:
238:
232:
227:
215:
204:
193:
179:
164:
157:stereotyping
149:
134:
125:
111:ethnocentric
107:
90:
86:
82:
80:
65:
56:
33:
2215:WikiProject
2147:Tea culture
2050:Culturalism
2020:Culture gap
1983:Pop-culture
1783:Catholicism
1705:Culture war
1163:Low culture
1062:Culturomics
969:Culturology
1212:Subculture
990:Bioculture
427:1259328675
325:References
186:worldviews
59:April 2021
43:improve it
2040:Culturgen
1808:Mormonism
1766:Religions
1439:Cultureme
1357:Destroyed
983:Subfields
807:cite book
765:144856538
757:1527-2060
707:cite book
665:144580919
657:0013-1245
605:cite book
563:0147-1767
519:151315097
435:cite book
371:0147-1767
47:verifying
2238:Category
2191:Category
1773:Buddhism
1523:Politics
932:Sciences
799:50858910
699:51074343
597:50803476
495:: 1–10.
2222:Changes
2203:Commons
1846:Related
1837:Sikhism
1832:Judaism
1263:Aspects
925:Outline
911:Culture
115:culture
41:Please
1222:Fandom
797:
787:
763:
755:
697:
687:
663:
655:
595:
585:
561:
517:
507:
425:
415:
369:
1820:Islam
1195:Urban
1183:Civic
1126:Types
761:S2CID
661:S2CID
515:S2CID
289:Botan
1237:list
813:link
795:OCLC
785:ISBN
753:ISSN
713:link
695:OCLC
685:ISBN
653:ISSN
611:link
593:OCLC
583:ISBN
559:ISSN
505:ISBN
441:link
423:OCLC
413:ISBN
367:ISSN
91:DMIS
81:The
745:doi
645:doi
551:doi
497:doi
359:doi
45:by
2240::
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635:.
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355:10
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333:^
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896:t
889:v
815:)
801:.
767:.
747::
715:)
701:.
667:.
647::
613:)
599:.
565:.
553::
521:.
499::
443:)
429:.
373:.
361::
144:.
89:(
72:)
66:(
61:)
57:(
39:.
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