5472:
efficiency...If you're planning a new, big central power plant, you want to get the best value (i.e., lowest LCOE) possible. For the cost of any given power-generating asset, that comes through maximizing the number of kWh it cranks out over its economic lifetime, which runs exactly counter to the highly cost-effective energy efficiency that has been a driving force behind the country's flat and even declining electricity demand. On the flip side, planning new big, central power plants without taking continued energy efficiency gains (of which there's no shortage of opportunityβthe
February 2014 UNEP Finance Initiative report Commercial Real Estate: Unlocking the energy efficiency retrofit investment opportunity identified a $ 231β$ 300 billion annual market by 2020) into account risks overestimating the number of kWh we'd need from them and thus lowballing their LCOE... If I'm a homeowner or business considering purchasing rooftop solar outright, do I care more about the per-unit value (LCOE) or my total out of pocket (lifetime system cost)?...The per-unit value is less important than the thing considered as a whole...LCOE, for example, fails to take into account the time of day during which an asset can produce power, where it can be installed on the grid, and its carbon intensity, among many other variables. That's why, in addition to , utilities and other electricity system stakeholders...have used benefit/cost calculations and/or an asset's capacity value or contribution to peak on a system or circuit level.
1115:(EEC). In the 2010s EEC caused the electricity demand of many countries, such as the US, to remain flat or decline. For solar systems installed at the point of end use, it may be more economical to invest in EEC first, then solar, or both at the same time. This results in a smaller required solar system than what would be needed without the EEC measures. However, designing a solar system on the basis of LCOE would cause the smaller system LCOE to increase, as the energy generation drops faster than the system cost. The whole of system life cycle cost should be considered, not just the LCOE of the energy source. LCOE is not as relevant to end-users than other financial considerations such as income, cashflow, mortgage, leases, rent, and electricity bills. Comparing solar investments in relation to these can make it easier for end-users to make a decision, or using cost-benefit calculations "and/or an asset's
101:
2457:; the cost for those investments is estimated at β¬4/MWh. Concerning solar power, the estimate of β¬293/MWh is for a large plant capable of producing in the range of 50β100 GWh/year located in a favorable location (such as in Southern Europe). For a small household plant that can produce around 3 MWh/year, the cost is between 400 and β¬700/MWh, depending on location. Solar power was by far the most expensive renewable source of electricity among the technologies studied, although increasing efficiency and longer lifespan of photovoltaic panels together with reduced production costs have made this source of energy more competitive since 2011. By 2017, the cost of photovoltaic solar power had decreased to less than β¬50/MWh.
1814:
fossil fuel-fired power plant. ... On a cost basis, wind and solar is the best economic choice in markets where firm generation resources exist and demand is growing." They further reported "the levelized cost of energy from lithium-ion battery storage systems is competitive with many peak-demand generators." BNEF does not disclose the detailed methodology and LCOE calculation assumptions, however, apart from declaring it is "derived from selected public sources". Costs of gas peakers are substantial, and include both the cost of fuel and external costs of its combustion. Costs of its combustion include emission of greenhouse gases carbon monoxide and dioxide, as well as nitrogen oxides (
938:
Another issue that is often omitted in discussions is the lifespan of various power plants β some of the oldest hydropower plants have existed for over a century, and nuclear power plants going on five or six decades of continuous operation are no rarity. However, many wind turbines of the first generation have already been torn down as they can no longer compete with more modern wind turbines and/or no longer fit into the current regulatory environment. Some of them were not even twenty-five years old. Solar panels exhibit a certain aging, which limits their useful lifetime, but real world data does not yet exist for the expected lifetime of the latest models.
136:
2769:. For larger rooftop PV systems with battery storage, the battery costs between 600 and 1000 EUR/kWh. For ground-mounted PV with battery storage systems, investment costs for battery storage of 500 to 700 EUR/kWh were assumed. The prices for smaller systems are in part lower, as these are standardized products, whereas larger battery systems tend to be individualized projects that additionally incur costs for project development, project management, and infrastructure. The range of investment costs is smaller for the larger sizes, as there is more competitive pressure.
121:
1386:
260:
typically have a capture rate under 100%. Typically the more of a single type of renewable that is built in a pricing area (such as Great
Britain) the lower the capture rate will become for that type, for example if many wind farms generate a lot at the same time the price at that time will go down. There can be curtailment if grid connectivity is lacking across the pricing area β for example from wind power in Scotland to consumers in England β resulting in the capture rate not reflecting the true cost.
3227:
2415:
7801:
9184:
8380:
3868:
3854:
1363:
1153:) it will dramatically reduce profit margins on this already competitive market. A 2021 IEA study of repairing old panels to reuse rather than recycle them concluded that the financial viability depends on country specific factors such as grid tariffs, but that reuse is only likely for utility solar, as rooftop owners will want to make best use of space with more efficient new panels.
55:, operations & maintenance (O&M), transmission, and costs of decommissioning. Depending on the local regulatory environment, some or all wholesale costs may be passed through to consumers. These are costs per unit of energy, typically represented as dollars/megawatt hour (wholesale). The calculations also assist governments in making decisions regarding
9173:
1847:
with the lowest expected costs in 2025". The report calculated LCOE with assumed 7% discount rate and adjusted for systemic costs of generation. The report also contains a modeling utility that produces LCOE estimates based on user-selected parameters such as discount rate, carbon price, heat price, coal price and gas price. The report's main conclusions:
3289:
1208:β the method most favored by economists for reducing global-warming emissions. Carbon pricing charges those who emit carbon dioxide for their emissions. That charge, called a "carbon price", is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon pricing usually takes the form of a
959:(especially when measured in units of currency per unit of energy content), fuel costs only make up a fraction of the operating costs of nuclear power plants. In general, the cost balance between capital and running costs tilts in favor of lower operating expenses for renewables and nuclear and in the other direction for fossil fuels.
3355:
incentives. The LCOE below is calculated based on a 30-year recovery period using a real after tax weighted average cost of capital (WACC) of 6.1%. For carbon intensive technologies 3 percentage points are added to the WACC. (This is approximately equivalent to a fee of $ 15 per metric ton of carbon dioxide CO
3274:
The cost of a solar PV module make up the largest part of the total investment costs. As per the recent analysis of Solar Power
Generation Costs in Japan 2021, module unit prices fell sharply. In 2018, the average price was close to 60,000 yen/kW, but by 2021 it is estimated at 30,000 yen/kW, so cost
2342:
In
Germany, the bidding processes that have been carried out since 2017 have led to significant cost reductions. In one bid for offshore wind farms, at least one bidder dispensed entirely with public subsidies and was prepared to finance the project through the market alone. The highest subsidy price
1215:
Depending on the assumptions of possible accidents and their probabilities external costs for nuclear power vary significantly and can reach between 0.2 and 200 ct/kWh. Furthermore, nuclear power is working under an insurance framework that limits or structures accident liabilities in accordance with
1099:
power sources, such as wind and solar, may incur extra costs associated with needing to have storage or backup generation available. At the same time, intermittent sources can be even more competitive if they are available to produce when demand and prices are highest, such as solar during summertime
1015:
will change about a quarter to a third of their fuel loading every one and a half to two years), short term fluctuations in world uranium prices are a risk absorbed by fuel suppliers, not power plant operators. However, long-term trends in uranium price can have an effect of a few tenths of a cent to
229:
or geothermal. LACE is the avoided costs from other sources divided by the annual yearly output of the non-dispatchable source. The EIA hypothesized that fluctuating power sources might not avoid capital and maintenance costs of backup dispatchable sources. The ratio of LACE to LCOE is referred to as
188:
The levelized cost of storage (LCOS) is analogous to LCOE, but applied to energy storage technologies such as batteries. Regardless of technology, however, storage is but a secondary source of electricity dependent on a primary source of generation. Thus, a true cost accounting demands that the costs
179:
over the lifetime of the project, such a cost analysis requires assumptions about the value of various non-financial costs (environmental impacts, local availability, others), and is therefore controversial. Roughly calculated, LCOE is the net present value of all costs over the lifetime of the asset
1160:
of Energy, undertaken over the period of 1995 to 2005 found that the cost of producing electricity from coal or oil would double over its present value, and the cost of electricity production from gas would increase by 30% if external costs such as damage to the environment and to human health, from
1148:
study costs of recycling solar panels will reach $ 20β30 per panel in 2035, which would increase the LCOE fourfold for PV solar power but only if panels are replaced after 15 years rather than the expected 30 years. If panels are replaced early this presents a significant policy challenge because if
3359:.) Federal tax credits and various state and local incentive programs would be expected to reduce some of these LCOE values. For example, EIA expects the federal investment tax credit program to reduce the capacity weighted average LCOE of solar PV built in 2025 by an additional $ 2.41, to $ 30.39.
1813:
In March 2021, Bloomberg New Energy
Finance found that "renewables are the cheapest power option for 71% of global GDP and 85% of global power generation. It is now cheaper to build a new solar or wind farm to meet rising electricity demand or replace a retiring generator, than it is to build a new
3212:
per kWh are: wind and solar 0.32, hydro 0.4, geothermal 0.54, and various rates for different types of biomass: for all these there is also a bonus of 0.08 per kWh if local components are used. Tariffs will apply for 10 years and the local bonus for 5 years. Rates are determined by the presidency,
2338:
In the United
Kingdom, a feed-in tariff of Β£92.50/MWh at 2012 prices (currently the equivalent of β¬131/MWh) plus inflation compensation was set in 2013 for the new nuclear power plant to be built at Hinkley Point C, with a term of 35 years. At that time, this was below the feed-in tariff for large
1846:
study which looks at a very broad range of electricity generating technologies based on 243 power plants in 24 countries. The primary finding was that "low-carbon generation is overall becoming increasingly cost competitive" and "new nuclear power will remain the dispatchable low-carbon technology
1271:
Calculations often do not include wider system costs associated with each type of plant, such as long-distance transmission connections to grids, or balancing and reserve costs. Calculations do not necessarily include externalities such as health damage by coal plants, nor the effect of greenhouse
5343:
MSRs have large negative temperature and void coefficients of reactivity, and are designed to shut down due to expansion of the fuel salt as temperature increases beyond design limits. . . . The MSR thus has a significant load-following capability where reduced heat abstraction through the boiler
986:
Short-term fluctuations in fuel prices can have significant effects on the cost of energy generation in natural gas and oil fired power plants and to a lesser extent for coal fired power plants. As renewable energies need no fuel, their costs are independent of world markets for fuels once built.
937:
As can be seen by these numbers, costs vary wildly even for the same source of electricity from place to place or time to time and depending on whether interest is included in total cost. Furthermore, capacity factors and the intermittency of certain power sources further complicate calculations.
242:
which includes both the cost of the electricity and the value to the electricity system. For example, the same amount of electricity is more valuable at a time of peak demand. However VALCOE does not take into account future changes to the electricity system, for example the addition of much more
1874:
compared renewable and conventional sources of energy, including comparison between existing and new generation (see table). Lazard study assumes "60% debt at 8% interest rate and 40% equity at 12% cost" for its LCOE calculation but did not disclose their methodology or project portfolio used to
779:
per kW of capacity β includes interest (a particularly high cost in this case as the utility had to borrow at market rates and had to absorb the cost of delays in construction) and is thus not an "overnight cost". Furthermore, there is the issue of comparability of different sources of power, as
259:
that a source receives divided by the time-weighted average price for electricity over a period. For example, a dammed hydro plant might only generate when prices are high and so have a capture rate of 200%, whereas a source that is not dispatchable, such as a wind farm without batteries, would
3366:
For utility-scale generation put into service in 2040, the EIA estimated in 2015 that there would be further reductions in the constant-dollar cost of concentrated solar power (CSP) (down 18%), solar photovoltaic (down 15%), offshore wind (down 11%), and advanced nuclear (down 7%). The cost of
2815:
The capital investment costs, fixed and variable costs, and the average capacity factor of utility-scale wind and photovoltaic electricity supplies from 2000 to 2018 have been obtained using overall variable renewable electricity production of the countries in the Middle East and 81 examined
5471:
Desirable shifts in how we as a nation and as individual consumersβwhether a residential home or commercial real estate propertyβmanage, produce, and consume electricity can actually make LCOE numbers look worse, not better. This is particularly true when considering the influence of energy
3354:
The following data are from the Energy
Information Administration's (EIA) Annual Energy Outlook released in 2020 (AEO2020). They are in dollars per megawatt-hour (2019 USD/MWh). These figures are estimates for plants going into service in 2025, exclusive of tax credits, subsidies, or other
1250:
Different countries charge generating companies differently for the negative externalities (such as pollution) that they create. To avoid unfair competition from imports of dirty electricity a tariff may be applied. For example, the UK and the EU may include electricity in their
6770:
1321:
Impacts on wildlife include an estimated 888,000 bats killed annually by collision with U.S. wind turbines. Millions of birds are estimated to be killed or electrocuted each year by collision with high-voltage power lines and pylons, and millions more by fossil fuel power
43:
can incur a variety of different costs, which can be divided into three general categories: 1) wholesale costs, or all costs paid by utilities associated with acquiring and distributing electricity to consumers, 2) retail costs paid by consumers, and 3) external costs, or
946:
O&M costs include marginal costs of fuel, maintenance, operation, waste storage, and decommissioning for an electricity generation facility. Fuel costs tend to be highest for oil fired generation, followed in order by coal, gas, biomass and uranium. Due to the high
3268:, however, has pointed out that the government estimates for nuclear power did not include the costs for reprocessing the fuel or disaster insurance liability. Son estimated that if these costs were included, the cost of nuclear power was about the same as wind power.
200:
emissions resulting from storage operation are nontrivial when compared to the emissions from electricity generation , ranging from 104 to 407 kg/MWh of delivered energy depending on location, storage operation mode, and assumptions regarding carbon intensity.
966:
in high income countries is usually to be had at lower interest rates than private loans, nuclear and renewable power become significantly cheaper β also compared to fossil alternatives β the bigger the involvement of state investment or state guarantees. In the
209:
The metric levelized avoided cost of energy (LACE) addresses some of the shortcomings of LCOE by considering the economic value that the source provides to the grid. The economic value takes into account the dispatchability of a resource, as well as the existing
1228:. It is often argued that this potential shortfall in liability represents an external cost not included in the cost of nuclear electricity; but the cost is small, amounting to about 0.1% of the levelized cost of electricity, according to a 2008 study.
1094:
differ. Nevertheless, capital intensive technologies such as wind, solar, and nuclear are economically disadvantaged unless generating at maximum availability since the LCOE is nearly all sunk-cost capital investment. Grids with very large amounts of
2008:
It can be seen from the following table that the cost of renewable energy, particularly photovoltaics, is falling very rapidly. As of 2017, the cost of electricity generation from photovoltaics, for example, has fallen by almost 75% within 7 years.
2538:
publishes studies comparing the cost of different styles of energy production. The values for PV installations are based on the average cost between
Northern and Southern Germany. The reports differentiate between the two and gives more details.
4285:
1044:), there is a notable seasonality to nuclear energy generation in France with planned outages usually scheduled for the lower demand summer period, which also coincides with school holidays in France. In Germany some two decades old and older
6729:
1141:β that is, the costs indirectly borne by society as a whole as a consequence of using that energy source. These may include enabling costs, environmental impacts, energy storage, recycling costs, or beyond-insurance accident effects.
6762:
1854:
low-carbon energy sources cannot be considered in separation, as they operate in "complex interactions" with each other to ensure reliable supply at all times; IEA analysis captures these interactions in value-adjusted LCOE or
1019:
The biggest factor in the operating costs of both nuclear and renewable are local wages β in most cases those need to be paid regardless of whether the plant is operating at full capacity or putting out only a fraction of its
1076:, have described limits to the "levelized cost of electricity" metric for comparing new generating sources. In particular, LCOE ignores time effects associated with matching production to demand. This happens at two levels:
1217:
1313:
measures power per unit surface area using given technology, and can vary by several orders of magnitude between high- and low-density sources. Surface power density is a significant limiting factor in countries with high
268:
While calculating costs, several internal cost factors have to be considered. Note the use of "costs," which is not the actual selling price, since this can be affected by a variety of factors such as subsidies and taxes:
2760:
The LCOE for PV battery systems refers to the total amount of energy produced by the PV system minus storage losses. The storage losses are calculated based on the capacity of the battery storage, the assumed number of
1288:
shifts. Decommissioning costs of power plants are usually not included (nuclear power plants in the United States is an exception, because the cost of decommissioning is included in the price of electricity per the
303:
Fuel costs β high for fossil fuel and biomass sources, low for nuclear, and zero for many renewables. Fuel costs can vary somewhat unpredictably over the life of the generating equipment, due to political and other
788:
and finally above 90% for the most reliable nuclear power plants. The average capacity factor of all commercial nuclear power plants in the world in 2020 was 80.3% (83.1% the prior year) but this includes outdated
175:(LCOE) is a metric that attempts to compare the costs of different methods of electricity generation consistently. Though LCOE is often presented as the minimum constant price at which electricity must be sold to
3362:
The electricity sources which had the most decrease in estimated costs over the period 2010 to 2019 were solar photovoltaic (down 88%), onshore wind (down 71%) and advanced natural gas combined cycle (down 49%).
8707:
8416:
1064:, Germany's (then remaining) nuclear power plants were described in media reports throughout the 2010s and into the early 2020s as highly profitable for their operators even without direct government subsidy.
2384:
to build low-carbon generation capacity, mainly offshore wind. Before 2022 these generators had always received payments from electricity suppliers, but that year they started making payments. In other words
1389:
Levelized cost of energy based on different studies. Source: IRENA 2020 for renewables, Lazard for the price of electricity from nuclear and coal, IAEA for nuclear capacity and Global Energy
Monitor for coal
3257:
A 2010 study by the
Japanese government (pre-Fukushima disaster), called the Energy White Paper, concluded the cost for kilowatt hour was Β₯49 for solar, Β₯10 to Β₯14 for wind, and Β₯5 or Β₯6 for nuclear power.
750:
block 3, which achieved first criticality in late 2021 had an overnight cost to the construction consortium (the utility paid a fixed price agreed to when the deal was signed of only 3.2 billion euros) of
4445:
Using LACE along with LCOE and LCOS provides a more intuitive indication of economic competitiveness for each technology than either metric separately when several technologies are available to meet load.
1348:, now dominate decisions in developed nations that incur health care costs publicly. A 2021 study estimated the health costs of coal power at hundreds of billions of dollars for the rest of the decade.
4266:
1259:
systems (ETS) of the importing and exporting countries may be linked, or the generators in one country may be subject to the ETS of another country (for example Northern Δ°reland generators are in the
6571:
6737:
7292:
5723:
ExternE-Pol, External costs of current and advanced electricity systems, associated with emissions from the operation of power plants and with the rest of the energy chain, final technical report.
4244:
971:, where interest rates tend to be higher, the shorter construction period of small scale projects (particularly wind and solar) partially compensates for their increased capital cost. In terms of
1189:, and this was before the external cost of global warming from these sources was even included. Coal has the highest external cost in the EU, and global warming is the largest part of that cost.
897:
per kW of capacity. However, due to the uneconomical prospect of operating it as a peaking power plant, the owners, soon after opening the plant in 2010, wanted to shut down the plant.
3943:
1221:
6703:
8409:
5911:
5735:
6620:
6606:
824:). In 2012, it produced 268 GWh of electricity, achieving a capacity factor of just over 50%. If the overnight cost is calculated for the nameplate capacity, it works out to
8605:
3938:
3887:
1683:
In 2023, Bank of America conducted a LCOE study in which it postulated that existing LCOE estimates for renewables do not account for fossil fuel or battery backup and therefore
5810:
8583:
6556:
4222:
1225:
8546:
1150:
6374:
129:
of producing renewable energy declined significantly, with 62% of total renewable power generation added in 2020 having lower costs than the cheapest new fossil fuel option.
6858:
5963:
2343:
that was still awarded was 6.00 ct/kWh. In a bid for onshore wind farm projects, an average payment of 5.71 ct/kWh was achieved, and 4.29 ct/kWh in a second bidding round.
145:": Trend of costs and deployment over time, with steeper lines showing greater cost reductions as deployment progresses. With increased deployment, renewables benefit from
6993:
5287:
4254:
1326:
1304:
8402:
3842:
Estimates given without any subsidies. Transmission cost for non-dispatchable sources are on average much higher. NB = "Not built" (No capacity additions are expected.)
1185:
emissions produced by these sources, were taken into account. It was estimated in the study that these external, downstream, fossil fuel costs amount up to 1β2% of the
7115:
1011:, this can have a significant impact on the economic viability of fossil fueled power plants. Due to the ease of stockpiling uranium and the rarity of refueling (most
4887:
4484:"Improving the traditional levelized cost of electricity approach by including the integration costs in the technoβeconomic evaluation of future photovoltaic plants"
230:
the value-cost ratio. When LACE (value) is greater than LCOE (cost), then value-cost ratio is greater than 1, and the project is considered economically feasible.
8620:
8615:
8588:
7652:
4598:
4173:
3998:
3948:
6826:
5936:
5254:
2535:
4155:
4082:
8573:
8521:
8325:
5305:
4859:
3367:
onshore wind was expected to rise slightly (up 2%) by 2040, while natural gas combined cycle electricity was expected to increase 9% to 10% over the period.
5674:
8595:
8568:
8541:
8516:
7019:
6801:
5691:
1128:
805:
have particularly low capacity factors but make up for it by selling electricity at the highest possible price when supply does not meet demand otherwise.
7293:"Amendments In The Law On Utilization Of Renewable Energy Sources For The Purpose Of Generating Electrical Energy - Energy and Natural Resources - Turkey"
6176:
6067:"New research shows proposed coal expansion will cost major cities USD 877 billion, cause quarter-of-a-million premature deaths, jeopardise climate goals"
5894:
4682:
2453:
have estimated the following costs. For nuclear power, they include the costs due to new safety investments to upgrade the French nuclear plant after the
189:
of both primary and secondary sources be included when the cost of storage is compared to the cost of generating electricity in real time to meet demand.
4236:
4114:
870:
if the cost estimates for both phases together hold. The source also calls this power plant uniquely cost effective for geothermal power and the unique
8927:
8667:
6423:
6041:
4197:
1402:
4828:
4331:
9197:
9192:
8912:
8536:
2369:
855:
843:
1239:. As private insurers base dam insurance premiums on limited scenarios, major disaster insurance in this sector is likewise provided by the state.
874:
makes the country one of the largest producers of geothermal power worldwide and by far the largest per capita or relative to all energy consumed.
225:
sources such as wind or solar be compared to the "levelized avoided cost of energy" (LACE) rather than to the LCOE of dispatchable sources such as
100:
9187:
8531:
5240:
1260:
7354:
109:
With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources, costs have declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.
196:
emissions if any component of the primary source is less than 100% carbon-free. In the U.S., a comprehensive 2015 study found that net system CO
8917:
4953:
3927:
2386:
1198:
1861:
cost of extension of operations of existing nuclear power plants (LTO, long-term operations) has the lowest LCOE of low-carbon energy sources;
9223:
8932:
8610:
6765:[BEE: Solar power only costs slightly more than power from gas and nuclear power plants; Photovoltaic follow-up costs are very low].
6125:
5848:
4279:
1415:
760:
7086:
9027:
8875:
8383:
4978:
4905:
4798:
3311:
2377:
999:
content make transporting it over long distances uneconomical β and are thus less subject to the influence of world markets. If there is a
351:
1875:
calculate prices. In the 2023 study Lazard explained their LCOE estimates for nuclear power are "based on the then-estimated costs of the
1032:, availability of sun or wind...) allow. However, in France the nuclear power plants which provide some 70% of electricity demand are run
6662:
8880:
8526:
8511:
8222:
5330:
5110:
5749:.... electric power generation based on the inefficient combustion of coal and diesel fuel air pollution and climate change emissions.
4393:
Hittinger, Eric S.; Azevedo, InΓͺs M. L. (28 January 2015). "Bulk Energy Storage Increases United States Electricity System Emissions".
8977:
8791:
8781:
8702:
8625:
8330:
7800:
7645:
5864:
5818:
2454:
1858:
cost of renewable energy sources significantly decreased and are competitive (in LCOE terms) with dispatchable fossil fuel generation;
1252:
135:
6942:
4534:
9202:
8811:
8796:
8630:
8578:
7950:
6586:
5675:"Preliminary Environmental and Financial Viability Analysis of Circular Economy Scenarios for Satisfying PV System Service Lifetime"
5450:
4775:
4214:
3897:
3329:
1851:
LCOE of specific energy sources significantly differs between countries due to their geographic, political and regulatory situation;
1132:
1091:
790:
345:
218:
192:
A cost factor unique to storage are losses that occur due to inherent inefficiencies of storing electricity, as well as increased CO
6914:
6881:
5037:
3271:
More recently, the cost of solar in Japan has decreased to between Β₯13.1/kWh to Β₯21.3/kWh (on average, Β₯15.3/kWh, or $ 0.142/kWh).
6378:
8858:
8672:
8563:
8553:
5451:"You Down With LCOE? Maybe You, But Not Me:Leaving behind the limitations of levelized cost of energy for a better energy metric"
5198:
2765:
and the efficiency of the battery. The results include differences in PV costs, battery costs (500 to 1200 EUR/kWh), and varying
2349:
In the same year, there were bids in Portugal for photovoltaic plants, where the price for the cheapest project is 1.476 ct/kWh.
1916:
1909:
1902:
1895:
1876:
1672:
7072:
4250:
8992:
8741:
8719:
8677:
8647:
8600:
8483:
8466:
8449:
8425:
8113:
8038:
7909:
4564:
2346:
In 2019, there were bids for new offshore wind farms in the United Kingdom, with costs as low as 3.96 pence per kWh (4.47 ct).
809:
671:
5988:
Smallwood, K. Shawn (March 2013). "Comparing bird and bat fatality-rate estimates among North American wind-energy projects".
5272:
2397:
or by nuclear. As many of Britain's existing nuclear reactors are due to retire soon the government hopes that cost effective
987:
Coal-fired power plants are often supplied with locally or at least domestically available coal β this is especially true for
9233:
9228:
9176:
8697:
8692:
1162:
1080:
Dispatchability, the ability of a generating system to come online, go offline, or ramp up or down, quickly as demand swings.
7122:
4652:
6763:"BEE: Solarstrom kostet nur noch minimal mehr als Strom aus Gas- und Atomkraftwerken; Photovoltaik-Folgekosten sehr gering"
6066:
5344:
tubes leads to increased coolant temperature, or greater heat removal reduces coolant temperature and increases reactivity.
5067:
4845:
8863:
8801:
8217:
8207:
8083:
7983:
7638:
5131:
Schwartzman, David; Schwartzman, Peter (August 2013). "A Rapid Solar Transition is not only Possible, it is Imperative!".
3933:
3917:
1186:
747:
172:
166:
63:
6400:
915:
per kW. With a yearly output of some 52 GWh (equivalent to just over 5.9 MW) it has a capacity factor just over 11%. The
8459:
8138:
8098:
7675:
3197:
1887:
6095:"Annex III: Technology-specific cost and performance parameters. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change"
5180:
4677:
4162:
3995:
3307:
3303:
114:(LCOE) is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime.
8830:
8714:
8471:
8365:
8360:
8078:
8053:
8043:
8019:
8014:
7720:
7267:
5879:
4920:
3351:(AEO), with yearly LCOE projections for future utility-scale facilities to be commissioned in about five years' time.
2446:
1832:
1242:
Because externalities are diffuse in their effect, external costs cannot be measured directly, but must be estimated.
983:
as it needs no imported hydrocarbons and as it allows hydrocarbon resources (where available) to be exported instead.
904:
239:
7436:
2450:
7045:
5484:
4939:
8280:
7998:
7968:
7745:
6101:
4147:
4089:
3201:
2723:
2518:
1955:
1647:
1096:
1049:
384:
9100:
9052:
8947:
8840:
8724:
8335:
7824:
7785:
7317:
7195:
7173:
6209:
5743:
4457:
3907:
1012:
5698:
5613:
5357:
9105:
9060:
8962:
8687:
8503:
8310:
8118:
8058:
7715:
5891:
4689:
1687:(LFSCOE) would be a more reasonable metric to compare sources in terms of providing 24/7 consumer electricity.
1385:
1290:
579:
280:; moderate for onshore wind turbines and solar PV (photovoltaics); higher for coal plants and higher still for
111:
75:
4739:
6349:
6094:
4121:
9152:
9090:
8493:
8249:
8239:
8229:
3922:
3912:
3873:
2381:
1145:
850:
may be released into the air. This partially offsets relatively high costs per capacity which were cited as
839:
794:
222:
120:
5081:
4812:
4437:
4190:
3967:
Machol, Ben; Rizk, Sarah (February 2013). "Economic value of U.S. fossil fuel electricity health impacts".
9095:
8922:
8170:
8033:
7816:
7705:
7321:
6524:
Praxishandbuch Energiewirtschaft. Energieumwandlung, -transport und -beschaffung im liberalisierten Markt.
6235:
4825:
4328:
3892:
878:
555:
551:
176:
40:
6273:
5095:
1297:. These types of items can be explicitly added as necessary depending on the purpose of the calculation.
8478:
8305:
8073:
8068:
8048:
7553:
7540:
7527:
7514:
7488:
6994:"Contracts for Difference auctions to be held annually in 'major step forwards' for net zero transition"
6324:
6153:
6115:
5860:
4890:[Germany goes offshore: EWE, E.ON and Vattenfall build the first wind turbine for alpha ventus]
4327:
Nuclear Energy Agency/International Energy Agency/Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
3348:
2398:
1839:
1427:
1310:
980:
400:
79:
7554:
Levelized cost and levelized avoided cost of new generation resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2014
7489:
Levelized cost and levelized avoided cost of new generation resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2015
7347:
7220:
Ahmadi, Esmaeil; McLellan, Benjamin; Ogata, Seiichi; Mohammadi-Ivatloo, Behnam; Tezuka, Tetsuo (2020).
5212:
4458:
Levelized Cost and Levelized Avoided Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2014
4888:"Deutschland geht offshore: EWE, E.ON und Vattenfall errichten erste Windkraftanlage fΓΌr alpha ventus"
4873:
907:β one of the largest in Germany β had a nameplate capacity at opening of 52.79 megawatt and cost some
828:
per kW whereas if one takes into account the capacity factor, the figure needs to be roughly doubled.
9080:
8848:
8488:
8454:
8444:
7899:
7661:
6636:
6463:
5774:
4402:
1505:
1294:
1108:
317:
293:
180:
divided by an appropriately discounted total of the energy output from the asset over that lifetime.
7501:
7147:
5534:
4960:
1375:
9142:
9135:
9075:
9012:
8972:
8967:
8642:
8270:
8103:
8003:
7978:
7931:
7740:
7730:
7695:
6595:
5561:"Optimizing photovoltaic electric generation and roof insulation in existing residential buildings"
3882:
1334:
1277:
1232:
1194:
1112:
972:
802:
618:
532:
494:
313:
67:
31:
7605:
7592:
7577:
7148:"One simple chart shows why an energy revolution is coming β and who is likely to come out on top"
4470:
1090:(how fast the power can be increased or decreased) may be quicker for more modern nuclear and the
9157:
9115:
9110:
9070:
9022:
8786:
8558:
8144:
7755:
6505:
5792:
5592:
5421:
5148:
5019:
4764:
4515:
2373:
1315:
1190:
1144:
Solar panel performance is usually guaranteed for 25 years and sometimes 30. According to a 2021
1083:
The extent to which the availability profile matches or conflicts with the market demand profile.
1021:
871:
813:
598:
308:
To evaluate the total cost of production of electricity, the streams of costs are converted to a
150:
6298:
4624:
3298:
may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience
1060:
or only covering them as long as no major maintenance was needed. By contrast after being fully
9032:
8907:
8853:
8652:
8637:
8295:
8175:
7780:
7565:
7464:
6889:
6848:
Contracts for the Hinkley Point C, verΓΆffentlicht 29 September 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2022
6670:
6497:
6489:
6454:
6255:
6121:
5844:
4572:
4418:
4275:
4037:
3984:
2766:
1890:
contains LCOE calculations for broad range of energy sources in the following four scenarios:
1256:
1178:
1041:
927:
834:
is unique among renewables in that it usually has a low above-ground impact and is capable of
309:
52:
5166:
4998:"Mapping of the levelised cost of energy for floating offshore wind in the European Atlantic"
1024:
and thus those plants are usually run to as high a fraction of their capacity as the market (
955:
in plants that use this alternative to uranium) and the comparatively low price on the world
784:
can be as low as 10β20% for some wind and solar applications reaching into the 50% range for
9007:
8987:
8982:
8957:
8756:
8729:
8244:
8185:
7889:
7884:
7861:
7770:
7710:
7243:
7233:
6845:
6479:
6471:
6247:
5997:
5782:
5582:
5572:
5411:
5403:
5372:
5140:
5009:
4505:
4495:
4410:
4370:
4360:
3976:
3837:
3265:
1671:*LCOE estimates for nuclear power from Lazard are "based on the then-estimated costs of the
1101:
831:
726:
707:
446:
7417:
7398:
7379:
5876:
5630:
3213:
and the scheme replaces the previous USD-denominated feed-in-tariffs for renewable energy.
9120:
9037:
9017:
8997:
8897:
8746:
8275:
8234:
8212:
8093:
8063:
8028:
7988:
7790:
5898:
5358:"Comparing the Costs of Intermittent and Dispatchable Electricity Generating Technologies"
4832:
4714:
4335:
4002:
3902:
1231:
These beyond-insurance costs for worst-case scenarios are not unique to nuclear power, as
1166:
1036:
to stabilize the grid. As a lot of home heating in France is supplied via electric means (
781:
637:
359:
281:
243:
solar power could reduce midday value but today's VALCOE does not take that into account.
146:
6591:
6042:"PolitiFact - Solar farms kill thousands of birds, but not as many as fossil fuel plants"
5458:
2820:
Average capacity factor and LCOE of wind and PV electricity resources in the Middle East
889:
converting 1750 megawatts of thermal energy to 847 net MW of usable electricity. It cost
6967:
6791:
Umrechnung mit Wechselkurs vom 8. September 2022 und UK-Verbraucherpreisindex seit 2012.
6467:
5778:
5226:
5045:
4406:
3240:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
2428:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
9147:
9042:
8942:
8870:
8300:
8290:
8088:
7700:
7196:"Study: Levelized Cost of Electricity - Renewable Energy Technologies - Fraunhofer ISE"
7174:"Study: Levelized Cost of Electricity - Renewable Energy Technologies - Fraunhofer ISE"
6832:
5761:
Kushta, Jonilda; Paisi, Niki; Van Der Gon, Hugo Denier; Lelieveld, Jos (1 April 2021).
5656:
3205:
2394:
1281:
1273:
1205:
1116:
1057:
1033:
1025:
963:
956:
948:
886:
835:
798:
416:
329:
7020:"CfD costs to be paid back to electricity suppliers as high wholesale prices continue"
6015:
5722:
1307:
show coal, for instance, to be radically higher in terms of GHGs than any alternative.
9217:
9130:
9085:
9065:
8887:
8662:
8320:
8108:
7993:
7973:
7904:
7894:
7851:
7735:
7690:
6709:(Report). UK: Department of Energy & Climate Change. 19 December 2013. p. 18
6545:
Handbuch Windenergie. Onshore-Projekte: Realisierung, Finanzierung, Recht und Technik
6509:
5796:
5763:"Disease burden and excess mortality from coal-fired power plant emissions in Europe"
5596:
5509:
5152:
5023:
4519:
4303:
3859:
3261:
2389:
became subsidy free, partly due to the fall in cost of offshore wind. Instead of gas
1285:
1029:
992:
785:
575:
297:
277:
238:
The value-adjusted levelized cost of electricity (VALCOE) is a metric devised by the
56:
5425:
8823:
8818:
8806:
8766:
8751:
8439:
8340:
8315:
8180:
8149:
7963:
7765:
7268:"New Turkish-Lira tariff scheme for renewable energy projects in Turkey | Lexology"
6424:"Solar, wind and battery storage now cheapest energy options just about everywhere"
6177:"Low-carbon generation is becoming cost competitive, NEA and IEA say in new report"
4438:"Assessing the Economic Value of New Utility-Scale Electricity Generation Projects"
3209:
2762:
2390:
1174:
1045:
1004:
968:
931:
273:
226:
8394:
5964:"Europe's carbon border levy could pose another post-Brexit challenge for Ireland"
5577:
5560:
1371:
7502:
2016 Levelized cost of new generation resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2010
6251:
5559:
D'Agostino, Delia; Parker, Danny; MeliΓ , Paco; Dotelli, Giovanni (January 2022).
5391:
5199:"Nuclear Power Economics | Nuclear Energy Costs - World Nuclear Association"
5144:
4347:
Schmidt, Oliver; Melchior, Sylvain; Hawkes, Adam; Staffell, Iain (January 2019).
3980:
1137:
Typically pricing of electricity from various energy sources may not include all
862:
for the 90 MW combined two first phases. This gives a cost per kW of capacity of
8937:
8892:
8761:
8734:
8165:
8133:
7926:
7914:
7834:
7760:
7750:
7680:
7568:, US Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Audit 2016, 5 August 2016.
7422:
7403:
7384:
6828:
Kooperation mit China: GroΓbritannien baut erstes Atomkraftwerk seit Jahrzehnten
4365:
4348:
3953:
3867:
1433:
1408:
1236:
1235:
plants are similarly not fully insured against catastrophic events like a large
1170:
1157:
1138:
1073:
1061:
882:
478:
462:
289:
45:
7606:"Levelized Costs of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2021"
7595:, US Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2018, March 2018.
7580:, US Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2017, April 2017.
6573:
Fraunhofer ISE: Studie Stromgestehungskosten Erneuerbare Energien November 2013
5787:
5762:
5407:
5014:
4997:
9002:
8128:
8123:
7936:
7919:
7775:
4794:
3849:
2704:
1920:
1209:
1000:
976:
687:
513:
366:
285:
211:
71:
7588:
7586:
7073:"An Efficient Energy Transition: Lessons From the UK's Offshore Wind Rollout"
6893:
6259:
4576:
4471:
Levelized Costs of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2021
3347:
Since 2010, the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) has published the
1204:
A means to address a part of the external costs of fossil fuel generation is
930:β has a total nameplate capacity of 2255 MW and cost a total of 98.5 billion
17:
9125:
8771:
7844:
7839:
7725:
7685:
7541:
Levelized cost of new generation resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2013
7528:
Levelized cost of new generation resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2012
7515:
Levelized cost of new generation resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2011
7348:"2010 Annual Report on Energy (Japan's "Energy White Paper 2010") (outline)"
6665:[E.ON and RWE overturn nuclear power plant plans in Great Britain].
6475:
5937:"Brexit decision left UK firms paying 10% more than EU rivals for emissions"
4826:"Final and Total Capital Costs of the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station"
3853:
3310:
any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against
2508:
1936:
BNEF estimated the following costs for electricity generation in Australia:
1330:
1037:
923:
655:
6622:
Fraunhofer ISE: Studie Stromgestehungskosten Erneuerbare Energien Juni 2021
6608:
Fraunhofer ISE: Studie Stromgestehungskosten Erneuerbare Energien MΓ€rz 2018
6501:
4422:
4375:
3988:
7222:"An Integrated Planning Framework for Sustainable Water and Energy Supply"
5811:"Carbon pricing β the one thing economists agree on - KPMG United Kingdom"
5376:
4349:"Projecting the Future Levelized Cost of Electricity Storage Technologies"
1823:), which damage the human respiratory system and contribute to acid rain.
8657:
7958:
6728:
Knud Rehfeldt; Anna Kathrin Wallasch; Silke Luers, eds. (November 2013).
5587:
4862:(Report). World Nuclear Association. September 2021. Report No. 2021/003.
4510:
1212:
or a requirement to purchase permits to emit (also called "allowances").
996:
952:
900:
The LCOE of floating wind power increases with the distance from shore.
8952:
8902:
8682:
7879:
7869:
7630:
7248:
7238:
7221:
6882:"New windfarms will not cost billpayers after subsidies hit record low"
6484:
6120:. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). June 2020.
4906:"Offshore-Windpark alpha ventus produziert 2012 deutlich ΓΌber dem Soll"
2685:
1182:
1087:
988:
7325:
6493:
6449:
4599:"Renewable capture prices: why they are crucial for energy transition"
4414:
1370:
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on
1016:
a cent or two per kilowatt-hour on the final price of nuclear energy.
8776:
7874:
7593:
Levelized cost and levelized avoided cost of new generation resources
7578:
Levelized cost and levelized avoided cost of new generation resources
7566:
Levelized cost and levelized avoided cost of new generation resources
7046:"UK electricity prices quadrupled in 2021 and fossil gas is to blame"
5861:
Publications: Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
5655:
Atasu, Atalay; Duran, Serasu; Wassenhove, Luk N. Van (18 June 2021).
5416:
5288:"Atomkraftwerke: Staat soll Laufzeiten versteigern statt verschenken"
4765:"Cost and Performance Characteristics of New Generating Technologies"
2649:
2339:
photovoltaic and offshore wind plants and above onshore wind plants.
1871:
1421:
1341:
1340:
Various human health concerns with electricity generation, including
6736:(Report) (in German). Deutschen Windguard. SP13007A1. Archived from
6161:
Based on the then-estimated costs of the Vogtle Plant and US-focused
6001:
5620:, 10 October 2014. Accessed: 20 October 2014. Size: 70 pages in 2MB.
4500:
4483:
4274:. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2023. p. 57.
328:
For power generation capacity capital costs are often expressed as
5430:
5133:
African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development
4237:"Majority of New Renewables Undercut Cheapest Fossil Fuel on Cost"
1384:
847:
7087:"New Britain-Norway power link makes debut as energy prices soar"
6539:
In: Wind Power Monthly, Jan. 2011, zit. nach: Alois Schaffarczyk
5839:
Viktor Wesselak, Thomas Schabbach, Thomas Link, Joachim Fischer:
2773:
Levelized cost of electricity of PV with battery storage (β¬/MWh)
2380:. So to reduce the share of gas the government annually auctions
1905:, high FLH, no carbon tax β scenario presented in the above table
1201:
to indicate which energy investments reduce such external costs.
7829:
4482:
Veronese, Elisa; Manzolini, Giampaolo; Moser, David (May 2021).
1836:
1345:
746:
Real life costs can diverge significantly from those estimates.
8398:
7634:
5241:"Der Strombedarf steigt, doch alte WindrΓ€der werden abmontiert"
5068:"GrΓΆΓtes Solarkraftwerk in Deutschland erΓΆffnet [5274]"
27:
Comparison of costs of different electricity generation sources
5692:"New research reveals the real costs of electricity in Europe"
5392:"A Review of Solar Photovoltaic Levelized Cost of Electricity"
4653:"Power surge: the value of investing in renewables - Risk.net"
4052:
The source does not distinguish between lignite and hard coal.
3836:: Projected LCOE are adjusted for inflation and calculated on
3282:
3220:
2408:
1356:
6375:"Levelized Cost of Energy and Levelized Cost of Storage 2020"
3840:
based on two years prior to the release year of the estimate.
2543:
Levelized cost of electricity of energy technologies (β¬/MWh)
919:
figure was again cited when the solar park was sold in 2010.
842:. However, depending on the plant and conditions underground
6401:"Scale-up of Solar and Wind Puts Existing Coal, Gas at Risk"
5912:"What impact could a CBAM have on energy intensive sectors?"
5614:
Subsidies and costs of EU energy. Project number: DESNL14583
4715:"Cost of wind, nuclear and gas powered generation in the UK"
6732:[Cost situation of onshore wind energy in Germany]
6450:"Terawatt-scale photovoltaics: Trajectories and challenges"
6350:"Projected Costs of Generating Electricity 2020 β Analysis"
4979:"Energiewende: Stadtwerke fordern Gaskraftwerk-Abschaltung"
1193:
avoids or greatly reduces future costs to society, such as
6968:"Climate change: Can the UK afford its net zero policies?"
6559:
Studie Stromgestehungskosten Erneuerbare Energien Mai 2012
2013:
Electricity production costs of new power plants in β¬/MWh
1149:
the recycling is made legal duty of the manufacturers (as
1107:
Another limitation of the LCOE metric is the influence of
7418:
Current nuclear debate to set nation's course for decades
4032:
4030:
4028:
3996:
Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy Analysis β Version 14.0
3371:
Historical summary of EIA's LCOE projections (2010β2020)
934:
to build. This works out to roughly 43681 rupees per kW.
6807:. Department of Energy and Climate Change. December 2013
4894:(Press release) (in German). alpha ventus. 15 July 2009.
4148:"Solar power got cheap. So why aren't we using it more?"
1052:
due to a reported market-rate electricity price of some
7465:"U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) β Source"
5096:"Bhadla Solar Park, Jodhpur District, Rajasthan, India"
4329:
Projected Costs of Generating Electricity (2005 Update)
4243:. International Renewable Energy Agency. 22 June 2021.
3944:
List of U.S. states by renewable electricity production
3196:
As of March 2021 for projects starting generating
1222:
Vienna convention on civil liability for nuclear damage
1119:
or contribution to peak on a system or circuit level".
6730:
Kostensituation der Windenergie an Land in Deutschland
4221:. International Renewable Energy Agency. August 2023.
6915:"Portugal's solar energy auction breaks world record"
6325:"Levelised Cost of Electricity Calculator β Analysis"
5255:"Schwarz-Gelb setzt auf Milliarden der AKW-Betreiber"
4535:"The True Cost of Energy: Fossil Fuels vs Renewables"
3939:
List of countries by renewable electricity production
3932:
Calculating the cost of the UK Transmission network:
3888:
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources
7380:
Son's quest for sun, wind has nuclear interests wary
5535:"Electricity β World Energy Outlook 2019 β Analysis"
4083:"WG III contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report"
975:, solar can be particularly attractive in replacing
9051:
8839:
8502:
8432:
8349:
8259:
8196:
8158:
8012:
7949:
7860:
7815:
7808:
7668:
7176:. Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE
6594:4 February 2022, retrieved 13 October 2017, Autor:
4922:
Radiation associated with Hot Rock geothermal power
1395:Global levelized cost of generation (US$ per MWh)
5390:Branker, K.; Pathak, M.J.M.; Pearce, J.M. (2011).
4436:US Energy Information Administration (July 2013).
1327:environmental concerns with electricity generation
1305:Comparisons of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions
7200:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE
6663:"E.ON und RWE kippen AKW-PlΓ€ne in GroΓbritannien"
6526:Berlin β Heidelberg 2009, pp. 294, 302, 322, 340.
4846:"Capacity factor β it's a measure of reliability"
4597:Savcenko, Kira; Perez, Mario (21 December 2021).
1220:, the Brussels supplementary convention, and the
1218:Paris convention on nuclear third-party liability
1156:An EU funded research study known as ExternE, or
922:The world's largest solar farm to date (2022) in
755:and a net electricity capacity of 1.6 GW or
7483:
7481:
7261:
7259:
6943:"What is the future of nuclear power in the UK?"
5457:. Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI). Archived from
4680:Working Paper, December 2006 β Updated May 2007
4163:"Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy Version 14.0"
1028:) and weather (avoiding overheating rivers with
255:is the volume-weighted average market price (or
5306:"(Xenon-135) Response to Reactor Power Changes"
4928:. Australian Geothermal Energy Conference 2009.
767:for a net electric capacity of 3512 MW or
6590:(Nicht mehr online verfΓΌgbar), archiviert vom
5877:Nuclear Power's Role in Generating Electricity
5444:
5442:
5440:
5438:
4940:"Γeistareykir geothermal station in operation"
3949:Environmental impact of electricity generation
8410:
7646:
6303:United States Environmental Protection Agency
6016:"How Many Birds Are Killed by Wind Turbines?"
4683:"A Review of Electricity Unit Cost Estimates"
4304:"Why did renewables become so cheap so fast?"
2536:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems
316:. These costs are all brought together using
8:
6698:
6696:
6694:
6692:
6690:
6688:
6236:"Levelized Full System Costs of Electricity"
5213:"Benchmarking Nuclear Plant Operating Costs"
5109:Darci Pauser; Kaira Fuente; Mamadou Djerma.
4996:Martinez, A.; Iglesias, G. (February 2022).
4795:"Electricity Technologies and Data Overview"
4388:
4386:
4048:
4046:
4022:At an acquisition cost of 4.2 billion euros.
2481:Nuclear (with state-covered insurance costs)
1337:and effect of coal extraction on watersheds.
771:per kW of capacity. The oft cited figure of
234:Value-adjusted levelized cost of electricity
6802:"Electricity Market Reform β Delivery Plan"
6537:Wind edges forward in cost-per-watt battle.
6204:
6202:
6200:
6198:
6089:
6087:
5273:""Sollten Kernkraftwerke weiter betreiben""
4789:
4787:
4785:
4678:A Review of Electricity Unit Cost Estimates
1898:, high full load hours (FLH), no carbon tax
1129:Environmental impact of the energy industry
8417:
8403:
8395:
7812:
7653:
7639:
7631:
6669:(in German). 29 March 2012. Archived from
6639:[The French doubt nuclear power].
6171:
6169:
5333:. World Nuclear Association. December 2018
4835:, Ontario Power Generation, 27 April 2004.
4813:"Olkiluoto 3: Finnlands EPR geht ans Netz"
4160:Chodosh's graphic is derived from data in
4061:Northern Ireland is part of the Irish grid
2459:
1100:mid-day peaks seen in hot countries where
942:Operations and maintenance (O&M) costs
866:if only the first phase is considered and
334:
8928:Environmental issues in the United States
7266:OlΔun, Kinstellar-Εeyma (February 2021).
7247:
7237:
7121:. ADEME. 22 November 2017. Archived from
6637:"Die Franzosen zweifeln an der Atomkraft"
6587:Studie Levelised Cost of Electricity 2015
6483:
5786:
5736:"Health Indicators of sustainable energy"
5608:
5606:
5586:
5576:
5415:
5013:
4509:
4499:
4374:
4364:
4268:Renewable Energy Generation Costs in 2022
3330:Learn how and when to remove this message
2368:As of 2022, gas is the largest source of
1844:Projected Costs of Generating Electricity
1685:levelized full system cost of electricity
1300:Other non-financial factors may include:
1048:were shut down after no longer receiving
844:naturally occurring radioactive materials
8913:Effects of climate change on agriculture
6117:Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2019
5396:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
5002:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
4874:"Explainer: Base Load and Peaking Power"
4488:International Journal of Energy Research
3369:
3343:Energy Information Administration (2020)
2818:
2771:
2541:
2011:
1938:
1817:
1689:
1393:
1187:EU's entire Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
221:recommended that levelized costs of non-
7437:"Solar Power Generation Costs in Japan"
4740:"David Millborrows paper on wind costs"
4191:"Lazard LCOE Levelized Cost Of Energy+"
4074:
4015:
3934:Estimating cost per kWh of transmission
2376:varies and being high carbon it causes
82:, but this varies greatly by location.
8918:Effects of climate change on livestock
7552:US Energy Information Administration,
7539:US Energy Information Administration,
7526:US Energy Information Administration,
7513:US Energy Information Administration,
7500:US Energy Information Administration,
7487:US Energy Information Administration,
7360:from the original on 21 September 2016
7110:
7108:
6937:
6935:
6635:Karin Finkenzeller (6 December 2012).
6448:Haegel, Nancy M.; et al. (2017).
4456:US Energy Information Administration,
4395:Environmental Science & Technology
3928:List of thermal power station failures
1956:
432:Combined-cycle with 90% carbon capture
6880:Jillian Ambrose (20 September 2019),
6148:
6146:
6144:
4860:World Nuclear Performance Report 2021
4647:
4645:
4559:
4557:
4555:
4533:Barnes, Rosemary (23 December 2021).
4179:from the original on 28 January 2021.
4158:from the original on 29 January 2021.
2030:Various individual data (as of 2012)
856:Γeistareykir Geothermal Power Station
797:which run their nuclear power plants
761:Darlington Nuclear Generating Station
205:Levelized avoided cost of electricity
7:
9172:
9028:Tropical cyclones and climate change
6773:from the original on 16 October 2014
4799:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
4291:from the original on 30 August 2023.
4225:from the original on 29 August 2023.
4203:from the original on 28 August 2024.
1870:In October 2020, the financial firm
808:The first German Offshore Wind Park
9061:Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion
6859:"Ausschreibung Windanlagen auf See"
5510:"Energy Efficiency 2019 β Analysis"
5485:"U.S. electricity consumption 2020"
5167:"Why Refuel a Nuclear Reactor Now?"
5111:"Sustainable Rural Electrification"
5082:"Juwi verkauft Solarpark Lieberose"
4565:"Renewable energy has hidden costs"
4036:With or without free allocation of
1253:Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms
801:which reduces the capacity factor.
763:in Canada had an overnight cost of
332:per kilowatt. Estimated costs are:
8331:Renewable energy commercialization
7071:McNally, Phil (18 February 2022).
6422:Parkinson, Giles (28 April 2020).
5865:International Atomic Energy Agency
4919:David L. Battye; Peter J. Ashman.
4247:from the original on 22 June 2021.
3312:Knowledge (XXG)'s inclusion policy
2455:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
791:Generation II nuclear power plants
30:For the price of electricity, see
25:
8708:pharmaceuticals and personal care
6377:. 19 October 2020. Archived from
6234:Idel, Robert (15 November 2022).
5817:. 9 November 2020. Archived from
4977:Vitzthum, Thomas (7 March 2013).
4776:Energy Information Administration
4196:. Lazard. June 2024. p. 16.
3898:Economics of nuclear power plants
2801:PV ground (utility, battery 3:2)
1133:Economics of nuclear power plants
1092:economics of nuclear power plants
893:to build. This works out to some
219:Energy Information Administration
9183:
9182:
9171:
8859:decline in amphibian populations
8564:Deforestation and climate change
8379:
8378:
7799:
5962:Taylor, Kira (31 January 2022).
5631:"Solar panel warranty explained"
4154:. Infographics by Sara Chodosh.
4146:Chrobak, Ula (28 January 2021).
3866:
3852:
3287:
3225:
2793:PV rooftop (large, battery 2:1)
2785:PV rooftop (small, battery 1:1)
2413:
2395:supplied by Norwegian hydropower
1361:
1123:External costs of energy sources
134:
119:
99:
51:Wholesale costs include initial
8993:Land surface effects on climate
8450:Environmental impact assessment
8426:Human impact on the environment
7324:. February 2020. Archived from
6913:Mike Parr says (31 July 2019).
5038:"Solarpark Lieberose in Zahlen"
4215:"Renewable Power Costs in 2022"
2497:Natural gas turbines without CO
810:Alpha Ventus Offshore Wind Farm
672:Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
276:tend to be low for gas and oil
6769:(in German). 14 October 2014.
6543:In: JΓΆrg v. BΓΆttcher (Hrsg.),
5767:Environmental Research Letters
5725:See figure 9, 9b and figure 11
5657:"The Dark Side of Solar Power"
5449:Bronski, Peter (29 May 2014).
5227:"Nuclear Power Economic Costs"
4625:"Understanding Capture Prices"
820:(after an initial estimate of
759:per kW of capacity. Meanwhile
1:
8864:decline in insect populations
8326:Renewable Energy Certificates
8286:Cost of electricity by source
8208:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
8084:High-voltage shore connection
7116:"CoΓ»ts de production des ENR"
6541:Technische Rahmenbedingungen.
6299:"Basic Information About NOβ"
6274:"BofA: The nuclear necessity"
5892:Availability of Dam Insurance
5578:10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111652
5356:Joskow, Paul L (1 May 2011).
3918:National Grid Reserve Service
854:for the 45 MW first phase of
173:levelized cost of electricity
167:Levelized cost of electricity
161:Levelized cost of electricity
64:levelized cost of electricity
9224:Late modern economic history
8341:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
8139:Transmission system operator
8099:Mains electricity by country
7676:Automatic generation control
6704:Electricity Generation Costs
6252:10.1016/j.energy.2022.124905
5145:10.1080/20421338.2013.809260
4954:"Siemens Annual Review 2006"
3981:10.1016/j.envint.2012.03.003
2461:French LCOE in β¬/MWh (2017)
1888:IPCC Fifth Assessment Report
8366:List of electricity sectors
8361:Electric energy consumption
8079:High-voltage direct current
8054:Electric power transmission
8044:Electric power distribution
7721:Energy return on investment
7426:, 23 September 2011, p. 1.
6625:. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
6181:Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
5880:Congressional Budget Office
5841:Regenerative Energietechnik
4959:. p. 2. Archived from
4366:10.1016/j.joule.2018.12.008
4172:. Lazard. 19 October 2020.
3275:is reduced by almost half.
2447:International Energy Agency
1197:. In 2022 the EU created a
905:Lieberose Photovoltaic Park
240:International Energy Agency
9250:
8281:Carbon offsets and credits
7999:Three-phase electric power
7444:Renewable Energy Institute
6611:. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
6102:Cambridge University Press
5408:10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.104
5042:www.solarpark-lieberose.de
5015:10.1016/j.rser.2021.111889
4772:Annual Energy Outlook 2022
4253:(with numerical data) and
4115:"Working Group III Report"
3202:renewable energy in Turkey
1126:
1050:renewable energy subsidies
1013:Pressurized Water Reactors
447:Internal combustion engine
164:
29:
9166:
9101:Environmental engineering
8948:Environmental degradation
8725:fishing down the food web
8374:
8336:Renewable Energy Payments
7825:Fossil fuel power station
7797:
6210:"BNEF Executive Factbook"
6020:American Bird Conservancy
5990:Wildlife Society Bulletin
5744:World Health Organization
4334:12 September 2016 at the
3969:Environment International
3908:Variable renewable energy
3802:
3394:
3391:
3386:
3383:
3378:
3375:
3234:This section needs to be
2830:
2827:
2824:
2422:This section needs to be
2279:Small-scale PV (Germany)
1919:, high FLH, $ 100/tCO2eq
1827:IEA & OECD NEA (2020)
1445:PV (utility, fixed-axis)
979:or diesel generators for
881:in Southern Germany uses
184:Levelized cost of storage
68:utility scale solar power
9106:Environmental mitigation
8963:Greenhouse gas emissions
8923:Environmental insecurity
8119:Single-wire earth return
8059:Electrical busbar system
7716:Energy demand management
5916:Committees.parliament.uk
5788:10.1088/1748-9326/abecff
5365:American Economic Review
3803:Nominal change 2010β2020
3384:Nat. gas combined cycle
2382:contracts for difference
1912:, low FLH, no carbon tax
1291:Nuclear Waste Policy Act
112:Levelized cost of energy
80:gas-fired power stations
9153:Sustainable consumption
8494:Social ecology (ethics)
8250:Residual-current device
8240:Power system protection
8230:Generator interlock kit
7399:Powering Japan's future
7154:(in French). 8 May 2018
7152:Business Insider France
7075:. Tony Blair Institute.
6547:, MΓΌnchen 2012, S. 166.
6476:10.1126/science.aal1288
5661:Harvard Business Review
5259:Der Tagesspiegel Online
4001:28 January 2021 at the
3923:Nuclear power in France
3913:Levelized cost of water
3874:Renewable energy portal
1567:Nuclear new (existing)
1465:PV (utility, tracking)
1267:Additional cost factors
1151:it already is in the EU
1146:Harvard Business Review
1072:Many scholars, such as
840:combined heat and power
463:Turbine, aeroderivative
9096:Ecological engineering
8876:runaway climate change
8034:Distributed generation
7706:Electric power quality
7322:PricewaterhouseCoopers
5897:8 January 2016 at the
5331:"Molten Salt Reactors"
3893:Distributed generation
2399:small modular reactors
1679:Bank of America (2023)
1391:
879:Irsching Power Station
838:generation as well as
552:Distributed generation
48:, imposed on society.
41:electricity generation
9234:Economics comparisons
9229:Electricity economics
8479:List of global issues
8306:Fossil fuel phase-out
8074:Electricity retailing
8069:Electrical substation
8049:Electric power system
7407:, 24 July 2011, p. 7.
7388:, 12 July 2011, p. 3.
5377:10.1257/aer.101.3.238
4831:22 April 2012 at the
4038:emission certificates
3349:Annual Energy Outlook
3198:electricity in Turkey
1388:
1311:Surface power density
1195:respiratory illnesses
1104:is a major consumer.
1068:Market matching costs
1056:per kWh not covering
981:rural electrification
775:β which works out to
39:Different methods of
9081:Community resilience
8881:in the United States
8849:Biodiversity threats
8522:cannabis cultivation
8489:Planetary boundaries
8455:Environmental issues
8445:Ecological footprint
7662:Electricity delivery
5821:on 26 September 2021
5704:on 24 September 2015
5635:CLEAN ENERGY REVIEWS
5565:Energy and Buildings
5261:. 29 September 2009.
5070:. 22 September 2018.
4744:Claverton-energy.com
4719:Claverton-energy.com
2598:PV ground (utility)
1940:Australia LCoE 2020
1295:full cost accounting
1293:), is therefore not
1255:. Alternatively the
1224:and in the U.S. the
803:Peaking power plants
318:discounted cash flow
296:, offshore wind and
9143:Restoration ecology
9076:Climate engineering
9013:Ocean acidification
9003:Loss of green belts
8973:Holocene extinction
8968:Habitat destruction
8643:Environmental crime
8271:Availability factor
8223:Sulfur hexafluoride
8104:Overhead power line
8004:Virtual power plant
7979:Induction generator
7932:Sustainable biofuel
7741:Home energy storage
7731:Grid energy storage
7696:Droop speed control
7128:on 26 February 2019
6861:. Bundesnetzagentur
6743:on 13 November 2013
6667:Reuters Deutschland
6468:2017Sci...356..141H
6428:Reneweconomy.com.au
6381:on 20 February 2021
5779:2021ERL....16d5010K
5181:"Reactor Refueling"
4966:on 22 January 2017.
4942:. 18 November 2017.
4407:2015EnST...49.3203H
3883:Electricity pricing
3376:Estimate in $ /MWh
3372:
2821:
2774:
2581:PV rooftop (large)
2564:PV rooftop (small)
2544:
2462:
2134:Natural Gas (CCGT)
2059:70β90; 70β100; 105
2014:
1965:Solar plus storage
1941:
1691:
1396:
1335:ocean acidification
1278:ocean acidification
1246:International trade
1233:hydroelectric power
973:import substitution
793:and countries like
479:Turbine, industrial
337:
314:time value of money
32:electricity pricing
9158:Waste minimization
9116:Mitigation banking
9111:Industrial ecology
9071:Cleaner production
9023:Resource depletion
8559:Corporate behavior
8517:animal agriculture
8145:Transmission tower
7756:Nameplate capacity
7328:on 12 January 2021
7239:10.3390/su12104295
6974:. 23 February 2022
6535:David Millborrow,
6522:Panos Konstantin,
6278:AdvisorAnalyst.com
5461:on 28 October 2016
4659:. 4 September 2020
3370:
3264:, an advocate for
2819:
2772:
2542:
2460:
2401:can be developed.
2012:
1962:Wind plus storage
1939:
1842:published a joint
1831:In December 2020,
1690:
1394:
1392:
1316:population density
1226:Price-Anderson Act
1191:Sustainable energy
1163:particulate matter
1022:nameplate capacity
1003:or other forms of
872:geology of Iceland
814:nameplate capacity
773:CA$ 14.319 billion
599:Solar photovoltaic
335:
151:economies of scale
74:is less than from
72:onshore wind power
9211:
9210:
9033:Water degradation
8908:Ecological crisis
8854:biodiversity loss
8653:Industrialisation
8638:Genetic pollution
8484:Impact assessment
8392:
8391:
8296:Environmental tax
8176:Cascading failure
7945:
7944:
7781:Utility frequency
7543:, 28 January 2013
7416:Johnston, Eric, "
7397:Bird, Winifred, "
7378:Johnston, Eric, "
7318:Energy Deals 2019
7052:. 14 January 2022
7026:. 13 January 2022
7000:. 9 February 2022
6825:Carsten Volkery:
6673:on 3 January 2014
6462:(6334): 141β143.
6183:. 9 December 2020
6127:978-92-9260-244-4
6022:. 26 January 2021
5849:978-3-642-24165-9
5843:. Springer 2013,
5310:Nuclear-Power.net
5286:Frondel, Manuel.
5048:on 8 January 2014
4695:on 8 January 2010
4415:10.1021/es505027p
4308:Our World in Data
4281:978-92-9260-544-5
3831:
3830:
3340:
3339:
3332:
3255:
3254:
3189:
3188:
2808:
2807:
2767:solar irradiation
2758:
2757:
2527:
2526:
2443:
2442:
2336:
2335:
2024:Publication 2011
2021:Publication 2009
2001:
2000:
1879:and US-focused".
1806:
1805:
1675:and US-focused".
1669:
1668:
1485:PV (residential)
1383:
1382:
1272:emissions on the
1257:emissions trading
1179:mercury poisoning
1109:energy efficiency
1042:resistive heating
928:Bhadla Solar Park
765:CA$ 5.117 billion
744:
743:
310:net present value
16:(Redirected from
9241:
9186:
9185:
9175:
9174:
9008:Phosphorus cycle
8988:Land consumption
8983:Land degradation
8958:Freshwater cycle
8757:Overexploitation
8730:marine pollution
8537:cocoa production
8419:
8412:
8405:
8396:
8382:
8381:
8291:Energy subsidies
8245:Protective relay
8186:Rolling blackout
7813:
7803:
7771:Power-flow study
7711:Electrical fault
7655:
7648:
7641:
7632:
7625:
7624:
7622:
7620:
7610:
7602:
7596:
7590:
7581:
7575:
7569:
7563:
7557:
7550:
7544:
7537:
7531:
7524:
7518:
7511:
7505:
7498:
7492:
7485:
7476:
7475:
7473:
7471:
7461:
7455:
7454:
7452:
7450:
7441:
7433:
7427:
7414:
7408:
7395:
7389:
7376:
7370:
7369:
7367:
7365:
7359:
7352:
7344:
7338:
7337:
7335:
7333:
7314:
7308:
7307:
7305:
7303:
7289:
7283:
7282:
7280:
7278:
7263:
7254:
7253:
7251:
7241:
7217:
7211:
7210:
7208:
7206:
7192:
7186:
7185:
7183:
7181:
7170:
7164:
7163:
7161:
7159:
7144:
7138:
7137:
7135:
7133:
7127:
7120:
7112:
7103:
7102:
7100:
7098:
7093:. 1 October 2021
7083:
7077:
7076:
7068:
7062:
7061:
7059:
7057:
7042:
7036:
7035:
7033:
7031:
7016:
7010:
7009:
7007:
7005:
6990:
6984:
6983:
6981:
6979:
6964:
6958:
6957:
6955:
6953:
6939:
6930:
6929:
6927:
6925:
6919:www.euractiv.com
6910:
6904:
6903:
6902:
6900:
6877:
6871:
6870:
6868:
6866:
6855:
6849:
6842:
6836:
6835:21 October 2013.
6823:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6812:
6806:
6798:
6792:
6789:
6783:
6782:
6780:
6778:
6759:
6753:
6752:
6750:
6748:
6742:
6735:
6725:
6719:
6718:
6716:
6714:
6708:
6700:
6683:
6682:
6680:
6678:
6659:
6653:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6632:
6626:
6618:
6612:
6604:
6598:
6583:
6577:
6569:
6563:
6557:Fraunhofer ISE:
6554:
6548:
6533:
6527:
6520:
6514:
6513:
6487:
6445:
6439:
6438:
6436:
6434:
6419:
6413:
6412:
6410:
6408:
6397:
6391:
6390:
6388:
6386:
6371:
6365:
6364:
6362:
6360:
6346:
6340:
6339:
6337:
6335:
6321:
6315:
6314:
6312:
6310:
6295:
6289:
6288:
6286:
6284:
6270:
6264:
6263:
6231:
6225:
6224:
6222:
6220:
6214:
6206:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6188:
6173:
6164:
6163:
6159:. 1 April 2023.
6158:
6150:
6139:
6138:
6136:
6134:
6112:
6106:
6105:
6099:
6091:
6082:
6081:
6079:
6077:
6063:
6057:
6056:
6054:
6052:
6038:
6032:
6031:
6029:
6027:
6012:
6006:
6005:
5985:
5979:
5978:
5976:
5974:
5959:
5953:
5952:
5950:
5948:
5943:. 9 January 2022
5933:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5922:
5908:
5902:
5889:
5883:
5874:
5868:
5858:
5852:
5837:
5831:
5830:
5828:
5826:
5807:
5801:
5800:
5790:
5758:
5752:
5751:
5740:
5732:
5726:
5720:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5709:
5703:
5697:. Archived from
5696:
5688:
5682:
5681:
5679:
5671:
5665:
5664:
5652:
5646:
5645:
5643:
5641:
5627:
5621:
5610:
5601:
5600:
5590:
5580:
5556:
5550:
5549:
5547:
5545:
5531:
5525:
5524:
5522:
5520:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5495:
5481:
5475:
5474:
5468:
5466:
5446:
5433:
5429:
5419:
5402:(9): 4470β4482.
5387:
5381:
5380:
5362:
5353:
5347:
5346:
5340:
5338:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5302:
5296:
5295:
5283:
5277:
5276:
5269:
5263:
5262:
5251:
5245:
5244:
5237:
5231:
5230:
5223:
5217:
5216:
5215:. November 2009.
5209:
5203:
5202:
5195:
5189:
5188:
5177:
5171:
5170:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5115:
5106:
5100:
5099:
5092:
5086:
5085:
5084:. 30 March 2010.
5078:
5072:
5071:
5064:
5058:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5044:. Archived from
5034:
5028:
5027:
5017:
4993:
4987:
4986:
4974:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4958:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4936:
4930:
4929:
4927:
4916:
4910:
4909:
4902:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4884:
4878:
4877:
4870:
4864:
4863:
4856:
4850:
4849:
4842:
4836:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4809:
4803:
4802:
4791:
4780:
4779:
4769:
4761:
4755:
4754:
4752:
4750:
4736:
4730:
4729:
4727:
4725:
4711:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4694:
4688:. Archived from
4687:
4675:
4669:
4668:
4666:
4664:
4649:
4640:
4639:
4637:
4635:
4629:www.synertics.io
4620:
4614:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4603:www.spglobal.com
4594:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4583:
4561:
4550:
4549:
4547:
4545:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4513:
4503:
4494:(6): 9252β9269.
4479:
4473:
4467:
4461:
4454:
4448:
4447:
4442:
4433:
4427:
4426:
4401:(5): 3203β3210.
4390:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4368:
4344:
4338:
4325:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4300:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4273:
4263:
4257:
4248:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4195:
4187:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4167:
4159:
4143:
4137:
4136:
4134:
4132:
4126:
4120:. Archived from
4119:
4111:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4094:
4088:. Archived from
4087:
4079:
4062:
4059:
4053:
4050:
4041:
4034:
4023:
4020:
3992:
3876:
3871:
3870:
3862:
3857:
3856:
3838:constant dollars
3373:
3335:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3315:
3291:
3290:
3283:
3266:renewable energy
3250:
3247:
3241:
3229:
3228:
3221:
2828:Capacity factor
2822:
2775:
2545:
2463:
2438:
2435:
2429:
2417:
2416:
2409:
2391:still dark weeks
2365:
2364:
2360:
2015:
1958:
1942:
1927:Regional studies
1822:
1692:
1397:
1365:
1364:
1357:
1102:air conditioning
1055:
918:
914:
910:
896:
892:
869:
865:
861:
853:
832:Geothermal power
827:
823:
819:
782:capacity factors
778:
774:
770:
766:
758:
754:
727:Geothermal power
338:
217:In 2014, the US
138:
123:
103:
21:
9249:
9248:
9244:
9243:
9242:
9240:
9239:
9238:
9214:
9213:
9212:
9207:
9162:
9121:Organic farming
9047:
9038:Water pollution
9018:Ozone depletion
8998:Loss and damage
8898:Desertification
8835:
8747:Overconsumption
8668:cleaning agents
8569:Energy industry
8532:meat production
8498:
8428:
8423:
8393:
8388:
8370:
8354:
8352:
8345:
8276:Capacity factor
8264:
8262:
8255:
8235:Numerical relay
8213:Circuit breaker
8201:
8199:
8192:
8154:
8094:Load management
8064:Electrical grid
8029:Demand response
8022:
8017:
8008:
7989:Microgeneration
7941:
7856:
7804:
7795:
7791:Vehicle-to-grid
7664:
7659:
7629:
7628:
7618:
7616:
7615:. February 2021
7608:
7604:
7603:
7599:
7591:
7584:
7576:
7572:
7564:
7560:
7556:, 17 April 2014
7551:
7547:
7538:
7534:
7525:
7521:
7517:, 26 April 2011
7512:
7508:
7504:, 26 April 2010
7499:
7495:
7491:, 14 April 2015
7486:
7479:
7469:
7467:
7463:
7462:
7458:
7448:
7446:
7439:
7435:
7434:
7430:
7415:
7411:
7396:
7392:
7377:
7373:
7363:
7361:
7357:
7353:. 28 May 2021.
7350:
7346:
7345:
7341:
7331:
7329:
7316:
7315:
7311:
7301:
7299:
7291:
7290:
7286:
7276:
7274:
7265:
7264:
7257:
7219:
7218:
7214:
7204:
7202:
7194:
7193:
7189:
7179:
7177:
7172:
7171:
7167:
7157:
7155:
7146:
7145:
7141:
7131:
7129:
7125:
7118:
7114:
7113:
7106:
7096:
7094:
7085:
7084:
7080:
7070:
7069:
7065:
7055:
7053:
7044:
7043:
7039:
7029:
7027:
7018:
7017:
7013:
7003:
7001:
6992:
6991:
6987:
6977:
6975:
6966:
6965:
6961:
6951:
6949:
6941:
6940:
6933:
6923:
6921:
6912:
6911:
6907:
6898:
6896:
6879:
6878:
6874:
6864:
6862:
6857:
6856:
6852:
6846:Hinkley Point C
6843:
6839:
6824:
6820:
6810:
6808:
6804:
6800:
6799:
6795:
6790:
6786:
6776:
6774:
6761:
6760:
6756:
6746:
6744:
6740:
6733:
6727:
6726:
6722:
6712:
6710:
6706:
6702:
6701:
6686:
6676:
6674:
6661:
6660:
6656:
6646:
6644:
6634:
6633:
6629:
6619:
6615:
6605:
6601:
6584:
6580:
6570:
6566:
6555:
6551:
6534:
6530:
6521:
6517:
6447:
6446:
6442:
6432:
6430:
6421:
6420:
6416:
6406:
6404:
6403:. 28 April 2020
6399:
6398:
6394:
6384:
6382:
6373:
6372:
6368:
6358:
6356:
6348:
6347:
6343:
6333:
6331:
6323:
6322:
6318:
6308:
6306:
6297:
6296:
6292:
6282:
6280:
6272:
6271:
6267:
6233:
6232:
6228:
6218:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6207:
6196:
6186:
6184:
6175:
6174:
6167:
6156:
6152:
6151:
6142:
6132:
6130:
6128:
6114:
6113:
6109:
6104:. p. 1333.
6097:
6093:
6092:
6085:
6075:
6073:
6065:
6064:
6060:
6050:
6048:
6040:
6039:
6035:
6025:
6023:
6014:
6013:
6009:
6002:10.1002/wsb.260
5987:
5986:
5982:
5972:
5970:
5961:
5960:
5956:
5946:
5944:
5935:
5934:
5930:
5920:
5918:
5910:
5909:
5905:
5899:Wayback Machine
5890:
5886:
5875:
5871:
5859:
5855:
5838:
5834:
5824:
5822:
5809:
5808:
5804:
5760:
5759:
5755:
5738:
5734:
5733:
5729:
5721:
5717:
5707:
5705:
5701:
5694:
5690:
5689:
5685:
5677:
5673:
5672:
5668:
5654:
5653:
5649:
5639:
5637:
5629:
5628:
5624:
5611:
5604:
5558:
5557:
5553:
5543:
5541:
5533:
5532:
5528:
5518:
5516:
5508:
5507:
5503:
5493:
5491:
5483:
5482:
5478:
5464:
5462:
5448:
5447:
5436:
5389:
5388:
5384:
5360:
5355:
5354:
5350:
5336:
5334:
5329:
5328:
5324:
5314:
5312:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5285:
5284:
5280:
5271:
5270:
5266:
5253:
5252:
5248:
5239:
5238:
5234:
5225:
5224:
5220:
5211:
5210:
5206:
5197:
5196:
5192:
5179:
5178:
5174:
5165:
5164:
5160:
5130:
5129:
5125:
5118:GSDR 2015 Brief
5113:
5108:
5107:
5103:
5094:
5093:
5089:
5080:
5079:
5075:
5066:
5065:
5061:
5051:
5049:
5036:
5035:
5031:
4995:
4994:
4990:
4976:
4975:
4971:
4963:
4956:
4952:
4951:
4947:
4938:
4937:
4933:
4925:
4918:
4917:
4913:
4904:
4903:
4899:
4891:
4886:
4885:
4881:
4872:
4871:
4867:
4858:
4857:
4853:
4844:
4843:
4839:
4833:Wayback Machine
4824:
4820:
4815:. 9 March 2022.
4811:
4810:
4806:
4793:
4792:
4783:
4767:
4763:
4762:
4758:
4748:
4746:
4738:
4737:
4733:
4723:
4721:
4713:
4712:
4708:
4698:
4696:
4692:
4685:
4681:
4676:
4672:
4662:
4660:
4651:
4650:
4643:
4633:
4631:
4622:
4621:
4617:
4607:
4605:
4596:
4595:
4591:
4581:
4579:
4563:
4562:
4553:
4543:
4541:
4532:
4531:
4527:
4501:10.1002/er.6456
4481:
4480:
4476:
4468:
4464:
4455:
4451:
4440:
4435:
4434:
4430:
4392:
4391:
4384:
4346:
4345:
4341:
4336:Wayback Machine
4326:
4322:
4312:
4310:
4302:
4301:
4297:
4288:
4282:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4260:
4255:archive thereof
4235:
4234:
4230:
4213:
4212:
4208:
4200:
4193:
4189:
4188:
4184:
4176:
4165:
4161:
4152:Popular Science
4145:
4144:
4140:
4130:
4128:
4127:on 4 April 2022
4124:
4117:
4113:
4112:
4108:
4098:
4096:
4095:on 4 April 2022
4092:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4065:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4044:
4035:
4026:
4021:
4017:
4012:
4003:Wayback Machine
3966:
3963:
3961:Further reading
3958:
3903:Demand response
3872:
3865:
3858:
3851:
3848:
3841:
3388:
3380:
3358:
3345:
3336:
3325:
3319:
3316:
3302:Please help by
3301:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3251:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3206:feed-in-tariffs
3194:
2813:
2632:Wind, offshore
2532:
2500:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2356:
2355:
2308:Large-Scale PV
2221:Wind, offshore
2204:60.35β111; 118
2006:
1934:
1929:
1885:
1868:
1829:
1821:
1815:
1811:
1681:
1547:Wind, offshore
1506:Solar (thermal)
1379:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1269:
1248:
1167:nitrogen oxides
1135:
1125:
1070:
1053:
1026:negative prices
1008:
951:of uranium (or
944:
916:
912:
908:
894:
890:
867:
863:
860:US$ 330 million
859:
858:and a total of
852:US$ 200 million
851:
825:
821:
817:
776:
772:
768:
764:
756:
752:
638:Battery storage
326:
282:waste-to-energy
266:
249:
236:
207:
199:
195:
186:
169:
163:
158:
157:
156:
155:
154:
147:learning curves
143:Learning curves
139:
131:
130:
124:
116:
115:
110:
107:Levelized cost:
104:
95:
94:
88:
62:On average the
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9247:
9245:
9237:
9236:
9231:
9226:
9216:
9215:
9209:
9208:
9206:
9205:
9200:
9195:
9190:
9179:
9167:
9164:
9163:
9161:
9160:
9155:
9150:
9148:Sustainability
9145:
9140:
9139:
9138:
9128:
9123:
9118:
9113:
9108:
9103:
9098:
9093:
9088:
9083:
9078:
9073:
9068:
9063:
9057:
9055:
9049:
9048:
9046:
9045:
9043:Water scarcity
9040:
9035:
9030:
9025:
9020:
9015:
9010:
9005:
9000:
8995:
8990:
8985:
8980:
8978:Nitrogen cycle
8975:
8970:
8965:
8960:
8955:
8950:
8945:
8943:Forest dieback
8940:
8935:
8930:
8925:
8920:
8915:
8910:
8905:
8900:
8895:
8890:
8885:
8884:
8883:
8878:
8871:Climate change
8868:
8867:
8866:
8861:
8856:
8845:
8843:
8837:
8836:
8834:
8833:
8828:
8827:
8826:
8816:
8815:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8789:
8784:
8779:
8774:
8769:
8764:
8759:
8754:
8749:
8744:
8739:
8738:
8737:
8732:
8727:
8722:
8712:
8711:
8710:
8705:
8700:
8695:
8690:
8688:nanotechnology
8685:
8680:
8675:
8670:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8634:
8633:
8628:
8623:
8618:
8613:
8608:
8603:
8593:
8592:
8591:
8586:
8581:
8576:
8566:
8561:
8556:
8551:
8550:
8549:
8544:
8539:
8534:
8529:
8524:
8519:
8508:
8506:
8500:
8499:
8497:
8496:
8491:
8486:
8481:
8476:
8475:
8474:
8472:on marine life
8464:
8463:
8462:
8460:list of issues
8452:
8447:
8442:
8436:
8434:
8430:
8429:
8424:
8422:
8421:
8414:
8407:
8399:
8390:
8389:
8387:
8386:
8375:
8372:
8371:
8369:
8368:
8363:
8357:
8355:
8351:Statistics and
8350:
8347:
8346:
8344:
8343:
8338:
8333:
8328:
8323:
8318:
8313:
8308:
8303:
8301:Feed-in tariff
8298:
8293:
8288:
8283:
8278:
8273:
8267:
8265:
8260:
8257:
8256:
8254:
8253:
8247:
8242:
8237:
8232:
8227:
8226:
8225:
8220:
8210:
8204:
8202:
8197:
8194:
8193:
8191:
8190:
8189:
8188:
8178:
8173:
8168:
8162:
8160:
8156:
8155:
8153:
8152:
8147:
8142:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8116:
8111:
8106:
8101:
8096:
8091:
8089:Interconnector
8086:
8081:
8076:
8071:
8066:
8061:
8056:
8051:
8046:
8041:
8039:Dynamic demand
8036:
8031:
8025:
8023:
8013:
8010:
8009:
8007:
8006:
8001:
7996:
7991:
7986:
7981:
7976:
7971:
7969:Combined cycle
7966:
7961:
7955:
7953:
7947:
7946:
7943:
7942:
7940:
7939:
7934:
7929:
7924:
7923:
7922:
7917:
7912:
7907:
7902:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7872:
7866:
7864:
7858:
7857:
7855:
7854:
7849:
7848:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7832:
7821:
7819:
7810:
7806:
7805:
7798:
7796:
7794:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7773:
7768:
7763:
7758:
7753:
7748:
7746:Load-following
7743:
7738:
7733:
7728:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7708:
7703:
7701:Electric power
7698:
7693:
7688:
7683:
7678:
7672:
7670:
7666:
7665:
7660:
7658:
7657:
7650:
7643:
7635:
7627:
7626:
7597:
7582:
7570:
7558:
7545:
7532:
7530:, 12 July 2012
7519:
7506:
7493:
7477:
7456:
7428:
7409:
7390:
7371:
7339:
7309:
7284:
7255:
7226:Sustainability
7212:
7187:
7165:
7139:
7104:
7078:
7063:
7037:
7011:
6985:
6959:
6931:
6905:
6872:
6850:
6837:
6833:Spiegel Online
6818:
6793:
6784:
6754:
6720:
6684:
6654:
6627:
6613:
6599:
6578:
6564:
6549:
6528:
6515:
6440:
6414:
6392:
6366:
6341:
6316:
6290:
6265:
6226:
6215:. 2 March 2021
6194:
6165:
6140:
6126:
6107:
6083:
6058:
6046:Politifact.com
6033:
6007:
5980:
5954:
5928:
5903:
5884:
5869:
5853:
5832:
5802:
5753:
5727:
5715:
5683:
5666:
5647:
5622:
5602:
5551:
5526:
5501:
5476:
5434:
5382:
5371:(3): 238β241.
5348:
5322:
5297:
5278:
5264:
5246:
5232:
5218:
5204:
5190:
5172:
5158:
5139:(4): 297β302.
5123:
5101:
5087:
5073:
5059:
5029:
4988:
4969:
4945:
4931:
4911:
4897:
4879:
4876:. 5 July 2012.
4865:
4851:
4837:
4818:
4804:
4781:
4756:
4731:
4706:
4670:
4641:
4615:
4589:
4551:
4525:
4474:
4462:
4449:
4428:
4382:
4339:
4320:
4295:
4280:
4258:
4228:
4206:
4182:
4138:
4106:
4073:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4064:
4063:
4054:
4042:
4024:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4006:
3993:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3863:
3847:
3844:
3829:
3828:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3810:
3807:
3804:
3800:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3790:
3787:
3784:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3759:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3732:
3731:
3728:
3725:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3713:
3710:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3698:
3697:
3694:
3691:
3688:
3685:
3682:
3679:
3676:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3657:
3654:
3651:
3648:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3630:
3629:
3626:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3611:
3608:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3596:
3595:
3592:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3580:
3577:
3574:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3552:
3549:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3524:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3478:
3475:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3459:
3456:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3425:
3422:
3419:
3416:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3397:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3385:
3382:
3377:
3356:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3320:September 2021
3295:
3293:
3286:
3280:
3277:
3253:
3252:
3233:
3231:
3224:
3218:
3215:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3149:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3126:
3123:
3119:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3102:
3101:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3072:
3068:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3017:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3000:
2999:
2996:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2983:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2936:
2932:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2922:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2902:
2898:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2864:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2832:
2831:LCOE ($ /MWh)
2829:
2826:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2798:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2778:
2756:
2755:
2752:
2749:
2746:
2743:
2739:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2697:
2694:
2691:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2675:
2672:
2669:
2668:Solid Biomass
2665:
2664:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2615:Wind, onshore
2612:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2482:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2441:
2440:
2421:
2419:
2412:
2406:
2403:
2378:climate change
2354:
2351:
2334:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2192:Wind, onshore
2189:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2018:Energy Source
2005:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1968:Storage (4hr)
1966:
1963:
1960:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1913:
1906:
1899:
1884:
1881:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1828:
1825:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1776:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1714:(Germany, EU)
1710:
1701:
1695:
1680:
1677:
1667:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1644:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1576:141β221* (31)
1574:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1527:Wind, onshore
1524:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1441:
1438:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1400:
1381:
1380:
1369:
1367:
1360:
1354:
1353:Global studies
1351:
1350:
1349:
1338:
1323:
1319:
1308:
1282:eutrophication
1274:climate change
1268:
1265:
1247:
1244:
1206:carbon pricing
1199:green taxonomy
1173:, river water
1139:external costs
1124:
1121:
1117:capacity value
1085:
1084:
1081:
1069:
1066:
1058:marginal costs
1034:load following
1006:
964:sovereign debt
957:uranium market
949:energy density
943:
940:
887:combined cycle
836:baseload power
816:of 60 MW cost
799:load following
742:
741:
738:
735:
734:$ 6,753β46,223
732:
729:
723:
722:
719:
716:
713:
710:
704:
703:
700:
697:
696:$ 2,574β16,283
694:
691:
690:, conventional
684:
683:
681:
679:
676:
674:
668:
667:
665:
663:
661:
658:
652:
651:
648:
646:
643:
640:
634:
633:
630:
627:
624:
621:
617:Solar PV with
614:
613:
610:
607:
604:
601:
595:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
572:
571:
568:
565:
562:
559:
548:
547:
544:
541:
538:
535:
533:Wind, offshore
529:
528:
525:
522:
519:
516:
510:
509:
506:
503:
500:
497:
491:
490:
488:
486:
484:
481:
475:
474:
472:
470:
468:
465:
459:
458:
456:
454:
452:
449:
443:
442:
440:
438:
436:
433:
429:
428:
426:
424:
422:
419:
417:Combined-cycle
413:
412:
410:
408:
405:
403:
397:
396:
394:
392:
390:
387:
385:carbon capture
383:Coal with 90%
380:
379:
377:
375:
372:
369:
363:
362:
357:
354:
348:
342:
330:overnight cost
325:
322:
306:
305:
301:
278:power stations
265:
262:
257:capture price)
248:
245:
235:
232:
206:
203:
197:
193:
185:
182:
165:Main article:
162:
159:
140:
133:
132:
125:
118:
117:
105:
98:
97:
96:
92:
91:
90:
89:
87:
84:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9246:
9235:
9232:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9222:
9221:
9219:
9204:
9201:
9199:
9196:
9194:
9191:
9189:
9180:
9178:
9169:
9168:
9165:
9159:
9156:
9154:
9151:
9149:
9146:
9144:
9141:
9137:
9134:
9133:
9132:
9131:Reforestation
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9092:
9089:
9087:
9086:Cultured meat
9084:
9082:
9079:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9067:
9066:Birth control
9064:
9062:
9059:
9058:
9056:
9054:
9050:
9044:
9041:
9039:
9036:
9034:
9031:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9009:
9006:
9004:
9001:
8999:
8996:
8994:
8991:
8989:
8986:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8921:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8888:Deforestation
8886:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8874:
8873:
8872:
8869:
8865:
8862:
8860:
8857:
8855:
8852:
8851:
8850:
8847:
8846:
8844:
8842:
8838:
8832:
8829:
8825:
8822:
8821:
8820:
8817:
8813:
8810:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8794:
8793:
8790:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8778:
8775:
8773:
8770:
8768:
8765:
8763:
8760:
8758:
8755:
8753:
8750:
8748:
8745:
8743:
8740:
8736:
8733:
8731:
8728:
8726:
8723:
8721:
8718:
8717:
8716:
8713:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8699:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8689:
8686:
8684:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8666:
8665:
8664:
8663:Manufacturing
8661:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8632:
8629:
8627:
8624:
8622:
8619:
8617:
8614:
8612:
8611:nuclear power
8609:
8607:
8606:fracking (US)
8604:
8602:
8599:
8598:
8597:
8594:
8590:
8587:
8585:
8582:
8580:
8577:
8575:
8572:
8571:
8570:
8567:
8565:
8562:
8560:
8557:
8555:
8552:
8548:
8545:
8543:
8540:
8538:
8535:
8533:
8530:
8528:
8525:
8523:
8520:
8518:
8515:
8514:
8513:
8510:
8509:
8507:
8505:
8501:
8495:
8492:
8490:
8487:
8485:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8473:
8470:
8469:
8468:
8465:
8461:
8458:
8457:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8446:
8443:
8441:
8438:
8437:
8435:
8431:
8427:
8420:
8415:
8413:
8408:
8406:
8401:
8400:
8397:
8385:
8377:
8376:
8373:
8367:
8364:
8362:
8359:
8358:
8356:
8348:
8342:
8339:
8337:
8334:
8332:
8329:
8327:
8324:
8322:
8321:Pigouvian tax
8319:
8317:
8314:
8312:
8309:
8307:
8304:
8302:
8299:
8297:
8294:
8292:
8289:
8287:
8284:
8282:
8279:
8277:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8268:
8266:
8258:
8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8241:
8238:
8236:
8233:
8231:
8228:
8224:
8221:
8219:
8218:Earth-leakage
8216:
8215:
8214:
8211:
8209:
8206:
8205:
8203:
8195:
8187:
8184:
8183:
8182:
8179:
8177:
8174:
8172:
8169:
8167:
8164:
8163:
8161:
8159:Failure modes
8157:
8151:
8148:
8146:
8143:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8117:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8109:Power station
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8095:
8092:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8082:
8080:
8077:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8065:
8062:
8060:
8057:
8055:
8052:
8050:
8047:
8045:
8042:
8040:
8037:
8035:
8032:
8030:
8027:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8016:
8011:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7997:
7995:
7994:Rankine cycle
7992:
7990:
7987:
7985:
7982:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7974:Cooling tower
7972:
7970:
7967:
7965:
7962:
7960:
7957:
7956:
7954:
7952:
7948:
7938:
7935:
7933:
7930:
7928:
7925:
7921:
7918:
7916:
7913:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7897:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7867:
7865:
7863:
7859:
7853:
7850:
7846:
7843:
7841:
7838:
7836:
7833:
7831:
7828:
7827:
7826:
7823:
7822:
7820:
7818:
7817:Non-renewable
7814:
7811:
7807:
7802:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7782:
7779:
7777:
7774:
7772:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7762:
7759:
7757:
7754:
7752:
7749:
7747:
7744:
7742:
7739:
7737:
7736:Grid strength
7734:
7732:
7729:
7727:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7717:
7714:
7712:
7709:
7707:
7704:
7702:
7699:
7697:
7694:
7692:
7691:Demand factor
7689:
7687:
7684:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7674:
7673:
7671:
7667:
7663:
7656:
7651:
7649:
7644:
7642:
7637:
7636:
7633:
7614:
7607:
7601:
7598:
7594:
7589:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7574:
7571:
7567:
7562:
7559:
7555:
7549:
7546:
7542:
7536:
7533:
7529:
7523:
7520:
7516:
7510:
7507:
7503:
7497:
7494:
7490:
7484:
7482:
7478:
7466:
7460:
7457:
7445:
7438:
7432:
7429:
7425:
7424:
7419:
7413:
7410:
7406:
7405:
7400:
7394:
7391:
7387:
7386:
7381:
7375:
7372:
7356:
7349:
7343:
7340:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7313:
7310:
7298:
7294:
7288:
7285:
7273:
7269:
7262:
7260:
7256:
7250:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7231:
7227:
7223:
7216:
7213:
7201:
7197:
7191:
7188:
7175:
7169:
7166:
7153:
7149:
7143:
7140:
7124:
7117:
7111:
7109:
7105:
7092:
7088:
7082:
7079:
7074:
7067:
7064:
7051:
7047:
7041:
7038:
7025:
7021:
7015:
7012:
6999:
6995:
6989:
6986:
6973:
6969:
6963:
6960:
6948:
6944:
6938:
6936:
6932:
6920:
6916:
6909:
6906:
6895:
6891:
6888:(in German),
6887:
6883:
6876:
6873:
6860:
6854:
6851:
6847:
6841:
6838:
6834:
6830:
6829:
6822:
6819:
6803:
6797:
6794:
6788:
6785:
6772:
6768:
6764:
6758:
6755:
6739:
6731:
6724:
6721:
6705:
6699:
6697:
6695:
6693:
6691:
6689:
6685:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6658:
6655:
6642:
6638:
6631:
6628:
6624:
6623:
6617:
6614:
6610:
6609:
6603:
6600:
6597:
6596:VGB PowerTech
6593:
6589:
6588:
6582:
6579:
6575:
6574:
6568:
6565:
6561:
6560:
6553:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6532:
6529:
6525:
6519:
6516:
6511:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6495:
6491:
6486:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6461:
6458:(in German).
6457:
6456:
6451:
6444:
6441:
6429:
6425:
6418:
6415:
6402:
6396:
6393:
6380:
6376:
6370:
6367:
6355:
6351:
6345:
6342:
6330:
6326:
6320:
6317:
6305:. 6 July 2016
6304:
6300:
6294:
6291:
6279:
6275:
6269:
6266:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6230:
6227:
6211:
6205:
6203:
6201:
6199:
6195:
6182:
6178:
6172:
6170:
6166:
6162:
6155:
6154:"LCOE Lazard"
6149:
6147:
6145:
6141:
6129:
6123:
6119:
6118:
6111:
6108:
6103:
6096:
6090:
6088:
6084:
6072:
6068:
6062:
6059:
6047:
6043:
6037:
6034:
6021:
6017:
6011:
6008:
6003:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5984:
5981:
5969:
5965:
5958:
5955:
5942:
5938:
5932:
5929:
5917:
5913:
5907:
5904:
5900:
5896:
5893:
5888:
5885:
5881:
5878:
5873:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5857:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5836:
5833:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5806:
5803:
5798:
5794:
5789:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5773:(4): 045010.
5772:
5768:
5764:
5757:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5745:
5737:
5731:
5728:
5724:
5719:
5716:
5700:
5693:
5687:
5684:
5676:
5670:
5667:
5662:
5658:
5651:
5648:
5636:
5632:
5626:
5623:
5619:
5616:" Pages: 52.
5615:
5609:
5607:
5603:
5598:
5594:
5589:
5588:11311/1197905
5584:
5579:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5555:
5552:
5540:
5536:
5530:
5527:
5515:
5511:
5505:
5502:
5490:
5486:
5480:
5477:
5473:
5460:
5456:
5452:
5445:
5443:
5441:
5439:
5435:
5432:
5427:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5393:
5386:
5383:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5359:
5352:
5349:
5345:
5332:
5326:
5323:
5311:
5307:
5301:
5298:
5293:
5289:
5282:
5279:
5274:
5268:
5265:
5260:
5256:
5250:
5247:
5242:
5236:
5233:
5228:
5222:
5219:
5214:
5208:
5205:
5200:
5194:
5191:
5186:
5185:Nuclear Power
5182:
5176:
5173:
5169:. April 2020.
5168:
5162:
5159:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5127:
5124:
5119:
5112:
5105:
5102:
5097:
5091:
5088:
5083:
5077:
5074:
5069:
5063:
5060:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5033:
5030:
5025:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4992:
4989:
4984:
4980:
4973:
4970:
4962:
4955:
4949:
4946:
4941:
4935:
4932:
4924:
4923:
4915:
4912:
4907:
4901:
4898:
4889:
4883:
4880:
4875:
4869:
4866:
4861:
4855:
4852:
4847:
4841:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4827:
4822:
4819:
4814:
4808:
4805:
4800:
4796:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4782:
4778:. March 2022.
4777:
4773:
4766:
4760:
4757:
4745:
4741:
4735:
4732:
4720:
4716:
4710:
4707:
4691:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4671:
4658:
4654:
4648:
4646:
4642:
4630:
4626:
4619:
4616:
4604:
4600:
4593:
4590:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4569:The Economist
4566:
4560:
4558:
4556:
4552:
4540:
4536:
4529:
4526:
4521:
4517:
4512:
4511:11311/1203655
4507:
4502:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4466:
4463:
4460:, April 2014.
4459:
4453:
4450:
4446:
4443:. p. 1.
4439:
4432:
4429:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4389:
4387:
4383:
4377:
4376:10044/1/75632
4372:
4367:
4362:
4359:(1): 81β100.
4358:
4354:
4350:
4343:
4340:
4337:
4333:
4330:
4324:
4321:
4309:
4305:
4299:
4296:
4287:
4283:
4277:
4270:
4269:
4262:
4259:
4256:
4252:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4229:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4210:
4207:
4199:
4192:
4186:
4183:
4175:
4171:
4164:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4142:
4139:
4123:
4116:
4110:
4107:
4091:
4084:
4078:
4075:
4068:
4058:
4055:
4049:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4033:
4031:
4029:
4025:
4019:
4016:
4009:
4004:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3965:
3964:
3960:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3875:
3869:
3864:
3861:
3860:Energy portal
3855:
3850:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3826:
3823:
3820:
3817:
3814:
3811:
3808:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3785:
3782:
3779:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3763:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3751:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3729:
3726:
3723:
3720:
3717:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3695:
3692:
3689:
3686:
3683:
3680:
3677:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3661:
3658:
3655:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3621:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3587:
3584:
3581:
3578:
3575:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3559:
3556:
3553:
3550:
3547:
3544:
3541:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3423:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3374:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3352:
3350:
3342:
3334:
3331:
3323:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3299:
3296:This section
3294:
3285:
3284:
3279:United States
3278:
3276:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3263:
3262:Masayoshi Son
3259:
3249:
3237:
3232:
3223:
3222:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3191:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3133:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3014:
3011:
3008:
3005:
3002:
3001:
2997:
2994:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2845:Photovoltaic
2844:
2841:
2839:Photovoltaic
2838:
2835:
2834:
2823:
2817:
2810:
2803:
2800:
2799:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2733:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2540:
2537:
2529:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2503:
2496:
2495:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2469:Cost in 2017
2468:
2465:
2464:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2437:
2425:
2420:
2411:
2410:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2361:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2340:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2010:
2003:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1976:Mean $ US/MWh
1975:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1953:
1951:Wind onshore
1950:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1873:
1866:Lazard (2020)
1865:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1834:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1808:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1694:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1434:discount rate
1429:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1409:discount rate
1404:
1401:
1399:
1398:
1387:
1377:
1376:MediaWiki.org
1373:
1368:
1359:
1358:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1286:ocean current
1283:
1279:
1275:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1158:Externalities
1154:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1140:
1134:
1130:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1051:
1047:
1046:wind turbines
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1030:cooling water
1027:
1023:
1017:
1014:
1010:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
984:
982:
978:
974:
970:
965:
960:
958:
954:
950:
941:
939:
935:
933:
932:Indian rupees
929:
925:
920:
906:
901:
898:
888:
885:as fuel in a
884:
880:
875:
873:
857:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
815:
811:
806:
804:
800:
796:
792:
787:
786:offshore wind
783:
762:
749:
739:
736:
733:
730:
728:
725:
724:
720:
717:
714:
711:
709:
706:
705:
701:
698:
695:
692:
689:
686:
685:
682:
680:
678:$ 1,999β5,505
677:
675:
673:
670:
669:
666:
664:
662:
660:$ 6,639β7,224
659:
657:
654:
653:
649:
647:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
631:
628:
625:
622:
620:
616:
615:
611:
608:
606:$ 1,333β2,743
605:
602:
600:
597:
596:
592:
589:
586:
583:
581:
577:
576:Solar thermal
574:
573:
569:
566:
564:$ 2,275β5,803
563:
561:$ 1,731β2,079
560:
557:
553:
550:
549:
545:
542:
540:$ 3,285β5,908
539:
537:$ 4,833β6,041
536:
534:
531:
530:
526:
523:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
507:
504:
502:$ 7,442β7,989
501:
499:$ 6,695β7,547
498:
496:
493:
492:
489:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
476:
473:
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
460:
457:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
444:
441:
439:
437:
435:$ 2,736β2,845
434:
431:
430:
427:
425:
423:
421:$ 1,062β1,201
420:
418:
415:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
402:
399:
398:
395:
393:
391:
389:$ 6,495β6,625
388:
386:
382:
381:
378:
376:
374:$ 3,075β5,542
373:
370:
368:
365:
364:
361:
358:
355:
353:
349:
347:
343:
340:
339:
333:
331:
324:Capital costs
323:
321:
319:
315:
311:
302:
299:
295:
294:solar thermal
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
274:Capital costs
272:
271:
270:
263:
261:
258:
254:
246:
244:
241:
233:
231:
228:
224:
220:
215:
214:in a region.
213:
204:
202:
190:
183:
181:
178:
174:
168:
160:
152:
148:
144:
137:
128:
122:
113:
108:
102:
85:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
60:
58:
57:energy policy
54:
49:
47:
46:externalities
42:
37:
33:
19:
18:Cost-per-watt
8824:urban sprawl
8819:Urbanization
8767:Particulates
8752:Overdrafting
8467:Human impact
8440:Anthropocene
8316:Net metering
8285:
8263:and policies
8181:Power outage
8150:Utility pole
8114:Pumped hydro
8020:distribution
8015:Transmission
7964:Cogeneration
7766:Power factor
7617:. Retrieved
7612:
7600:
7573:
7561:
7548:
7535:
7522:
7509:
7496:
7468:. Retrieved
7459:
7447:. Retrieved
7443:
7431:
7421:
7412:
7402:
7393:
7383:
7374:
7362:. Retrieved
7342:
7330:. Retrieved
7326:the original
7312:
7300:. Retrieved
7296:
7287:
7275:. Retrieved
7272:Lexology.com
7271:
7232:(10): 4295.
7229:
7225:
7215:
7203:. Retrieved
7199:
7190:
7178:. Retrieved
7168:
7156:. Retrieved
7151:
7142:
7130:. Retrieved
7123:the original
7095:. Retrieved
7090:
7081:
7066:
7054:. Retrieved
7049:
7040:
7028:. Retrieved
7023:
7014:
7002:. Retrieved
6997:
6988:
6976:. Retrieved
6971:
6962:
6950:. Retrieved
6946:
6922:. Retrieved
6918:
6908:
6897:, retrieved
6886:The Guardian
6885:
6875:
6863:. Retrieved
6853:
6840:
6827:
6821:
6809:. Retrieved
6796:
6787:
6775:. Retrieved
6766:
6757:
6745:. Retrieved
6738:the original
6723:
6711:. Retrieved
6675:. Retrieved
6671:the original
6666:
6657:
6645:. Retrieved
6640:
6630:
6621:
6616:
6607:
6602:
6585:
6581:
6572:
6567:
6558:
6552:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6531:
6523:
6518:
6459:
6453:
6443:
6431:. Retrieved
6427:
6417:
6405:. Retrieved
6395:
6383:. Retrieved
6379:the original
6369:
6357:. Retrieved
6353:
6344:
6332:. Retrieved
6328:
6319:
6307:. Retrieved
6302:
6293:
6281:. Retrieved
6277:
6268:
6243:
6239:
6229:
6217:. Retrieved
6185:. Retrieved
6180:
6160:
6131:. Retrieved
6116:
6110:
6074:. Retrieved
6070:
6061:
6049:. Retrieved
6045:
6036:
6024:. Retrieved
6019:
6010:
5996:(1): 19β33.
5993:
5989:
5983:
5971:. Retrieved
5968:Euractiv.com
5967:
5957:
5945:. Retrieved
5941:the Guardian
5940:
5931:
5919:. Retrieved
5915:
5906:
5887:
5872:
5856:
5840:
5835:
5825:26 September
5823:. Retrieved
5819:the original
5814:
5805:
5770:
5766:
5756:
5748:
5742:
5730:
5718:
5706:. Retrieved
5699:the original
5686:
5669:
5660:
5650:
5638:. Retrieved
5634:
5625:
5617:
5568:
5564:
5554:
5542:. Retrieved
5538:
5529:
5517:. Retrieved
5513:
5504:
5492:. Retrieved
5488:
5479:
5470:
5463:. Retrieved
5459:the original
5454:
5399:
5395:
5385:
5368:
5364:
5351:
5342:
5335:. Retrieved
5325:
5313:. Retrieved
5309:
5300:
5291:
5281:
5267:
5258:
5249:
5235:
5221:
5207:
5193:
5184:
5175:
5161:
5136:
5132:
5126:
5117:
5104:
5090:
5076:
5062:
5050:. Retrieved
5046:the original
5041:
5032:
5005:
5001:
4991:
4982:
4972:
4961:the original
4948:
4934:
4921:
4914:
4900:
4882:
4868:
4854:
4840:
4821:
4807:
4771:
4759:
4747:. Retrieved
4743:
4734:
4722:. Retrieved
4718:
4709:
4697:. Retrieved
4690:the original
4673:
4663:21 September
4661:. Retrieved
4657:www.risk.net
4656:
4634:21 September
4632:. Retrieved
4628:
4618:
4608:21 September
4606:. Retrieved
4602:
4592:
4582:21 September
4580:. Retrieved
4568:
4542:. Retrieved
4538:
4528:
4491:
4487:
4477:
4465:
4452:
4444:
4431:
4398:
4394:
4356:
4352:
4342:
4323:
4311:. Retrieved
4307:
4298:
4267:
4261:
4240:
4231:
4218:
4209:
4185:
4169:
4151:
4141:
4129:. Retrieved
4122:the original
4109:
4097:. Retrieved
4090:the original
4077:
4057:
4018:
3972:
3968:
3833:
3832:
3365:
3361:
3353:
3346:
3326:
3317:
3304:spinning off
3297:
3273:
3270:
3260:
3256:
3243:
3235:
3195:
2814:
2759:
2742:Gas Turbine
2533:
2509:Onshore wind
2489:Nuclear EPR
2444:
2431:
2423:
2372:at 40%: its
2367:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2271:101.4β147.4
2129:110.3β200.4
2100:103.8β153.4
2007:
1935:
1886:
1877:Vogtle Plant
1869:
1843:
1830:
1818:
1812:
1716:
1713:
1707:
1705:(Texas, US)
1704:
1698:
1684:
1682:
1673:Vogtle Plant
1670:
1431:
1406:
1299:
1270:
1249:
1241:
1230:
1214:
1203:
1155:
1143:
1136:
1113:conservation
1106:
1097:intermittent
1086:
1071:
1018:
985:
969:Global South
961:
945:
936:
921:
917:β¬160 million
911:to build or
909:β¬160 million
902:
899:
891:β¬450 million
876:
830:
822:β¬190 million
818:β¬250 million
807:
753:β¬8.5 billion
745:
580:concentrated
336:Cost per kW
327:
307:
267:
264:Cost factors
256:
253:capture rate
252:
250:
247:Capture rate
237:
227:fossil fuels
223:dispatchable
216:
208:
191:
187:
170:
142:
126:
106:
86:Cost metrics
61:
50:
38:
36:
8938:Externality
8933:Coral reefs
8893:Defaunation
8762:Overgrazing
8735:overfishing
8715:Marine life
8589:electricity
8512:Agriculture
8311:Load factor
8166:Black start
8134:Transformer
7835:Natural gas
7786:Variability
7761:Peak demand
7751:Merit order
7681:Backfeeding
7619:22 February
7470:25 November
7423:Japan Times
7404:Japan Times
7385:Japan Times
7302:21 December
7249:2433/259701
7205:7 September
7180:8 September
7097:23 February
7056:23 February
7030:23 February
7004:23 February
6978:23 February
6952:23 February
6947:The Week UK
6865:5 September
6777:8 September
6767:SolarServer
6747:8 September
6647:12 December
6643:(in German)
6641:Zeit Online
6485:10945/57762
6433:22 February
6309:23 February
5921:22 February
5882:, May 2008.
5544:23 February
5519:23 February
5494:23 February
5431:Open access
4749:4 September
4724:4 September
4623:Synertics.
4251:Infographic
4005:(Oct. 2020)
3954:Grid parity
2811:Middle East
2519:Solar farms
2474:Hydro power
2370:electricity
2300:72.3β115.4
2274:72.2β172.6
2245:72.3β121.3
2242:74.9β137.9
2158:77.9β130.6
2042:Study 2021
2039:Study 2018
2036:Study 2015
2033:Study 2013
2027:Study 2012
1971:Gas peaker
1883:IPCC (2014)
1809:BNEF (2021)
1607:Geothermal
1372:Phabricator
1237:dam failure
1171:chromium VI
1074:Paul Joskow
1062:depreciated
883:natural gas
877:Block 5 of
645:$ 988β4,774
407:$ 922β2,630
401:Natural gas
9218:Categories
9203:mitigation
9198:assessment
9193:by country
9091:Decoupling
9053:Mitigation
8782:Reservoirs
8703:pesticides
8648:Explosives
8626:reservoirs
8527:irrigation
8353:production
8198:Protective
8129:Super grid
8124:Smart grid
7951:Generation
7885:Geothermal
7776:Repowering
7332:4 February
7320:(Report).
7297:Mondaq.com
7277:3 February
7158:17 October
6385:24 October
6359:29 October
6334:29 October
6283:18 January
6246:: 124905.
6076:6 February
6071:C40 Cities
6051:6 February
5973:6 February
5947:6 February
5571:: 111652.
5465:28 October
5455:RMI Outlet
5008:: 111889.
4544:6 February
4170:Lazard.com
4069:References
3409:convent'l
3381:convent'l
3308:relocating
2816:projects.
2466:Technology
2434:March 2022
2387:renewables
2329:37.1β84.6
2303:58.1β80.4
2216:39.4β82.9
2213:39.9β82.3
2155:77.8β99.6
2126:62.7β98.6
2105:Hard Coal
2097:45.9β79.8
1921:carbon tax
1627:Coal (CC)
1440:BNEF 2021
1210:carbon tax
1175:alkalinity
1127:See also:
1088:Ramp rates
1038:heat pumps
1001:carbon tax
991:whose low
977:bunker oil
926:, India β
688:Hydropower
656:Fuel cells
514:Wind power
367:Coal power
312:using the
212:energy mix
177:break even
127:Past costs
9126:Recycling
8792:Transport
8777:Quarrying
8772:Pollution
8631:transport
8621:petroleum
8616:oil shale
8579:biodiesel
8261:Economics
7984:Micro CHP
7862:Renewable
7845:Petroleum
7840:Oil shale
7726:Grid code
7686:Base load
7364:1 October
6924:3 October
6899:3 October
6894:0261-3077
6510:206654326
6260:0360-5442
5797:233580803
5597:243838932
5417:1974/6879
5153:129118869
5024:244089510
4699:6 October
4577:0013-0613
4520:234043064
4469:EIA 2021
4293:Fig. 1.11
4241:IRENA.org
4219:IRENA.org
3975:: 75β80.
3418:offshore
3412:advanced
3406:for year
3389:advanced
3246:July 2016
2705:Hard Coal
2320:100; 184
1932:Australia
1639:88 (110)
1390:capacity.
1331:acid rain
995:and high
924:Rajasthan
868:US$ 3,667
864:US$ 4,444
777:CA$ 4,077
769:CA$ 1,457
748:Olkiluoto
9188:Category
8812:shipping
8797:aviation
8683:plastics
8673:concrete
8658:Land use
8574:biofuels
8542:palm oil
8384:Category
8171:Brownout
7959:AC power
7669:Concepts
7355:Archived
6972:BBC News
6844:gov.uk:
6771:Archived
6677:30 March
6592:Original
6502:28408563
5895:Archived
5851:, p. 27.
5747:. 2021.
5640:19 March
5489:Statista
5426:73523633
5337:8 August
5315:8 August
5052:27 April
4983:Die Welt
4829:Archived
4423:25629631
4332:Archived
4286:Archived
4245:Archived
4223:Archived
4198:Archived
4174:Archived
4156:Archived
3999:Archived
3989:23246069
3846:See also
3415:onshore
3400:of year
3204:in July
2332:31.2β57
2317:107β167
2288:137β203
2265:135β215
2236:119β194
2233:142β150
2230:112β183
2227:120β180
2076:Lignite
2047:Nuclear
1765:Biomass
1723:Nuclear
1659:115β221
1579:69 (32)
1494:117β282
1329:include
1009:-pricing
997:moisture
953:MOX fuel
846:such as
737:$ 55β396
699:$ 60β366
609:$ 31β146
567:$ 32β219
543:$ 67β146
304:factors.
9177:Commons
8953:Erosion
8903:Ecocide
8841:Effects
8787:Tourism
8720:fishing
8678:fashion
8601:fashion
8554:Bitcoin
8433:General
8200:devices
7910:Thermal
7905:Osmotic
7900:Current
7880:Biomass
7870:Biofuel
7852:Nuclear
7809:Sources
7613:Eia.gov
7449:30 June
7091:Reuters
7024:Current
6998:Current
6494:1352502
6464:Bibcode
6455:Science
6219:3 March
6187:23 June
6026:5 March
5775:Bibcode
5680:. 2021.
5292:Faz.net
4801:. 2022.
4774:. U.S.
4403:Bibcode
4131:4 April
4099:4 April
3387:Nuclear
3236:updated
2751:164.85
2737:104,25
2718:155.35
2686:Lignite
2680:112.75
2663:128.55
2530:Germany
2501:capture
2424:updated
2393:can be
2353:Britain
2326:35β180
2323:79β116
2294:98β142
2250:Biogas
2239:67β169
2210:29β114
2207:45β107
2198:50β130
2181:22β108
2152:53β168
2123:40β116
2111:45β100
2082:45β100
2053:60β100
1945:Source
1855:VALCOE;
1717:$ /MWh
1712:LFSCOE
1708:$ /MWh
1703:LFSCOE
1699:$ /MWh
1650:(Peak)
1636:68β166
1616:61-102
1556:72β140
1432:(at 7%
1407:(at 5%
1374:and on
1322:plants.
1183:arsenic
989:lignite
812:with a
740:80β90%
731:$ 3,076
715:$ 4,416
712:$ 4,524
708:Biomass
702:31β66%
693:$ 3,083
642:$ 1,316
632:20β31%
629:$ 53β81
626:$ 2,044
623:$ 1,748
619:storage
612:12β30%
603:$ 1,327
593:49β63%
590:$ 76β97
587:$ 6,505
584:$ 7,895
570:11β52%
546:29β52%
527:18β48%
524:$ 27β75
521:$ 1,462
518:$ 1,718
505:$ 81β82
495:Nuclear
467:$ 1,294
451:$ 2,018
371:$ 4,074
356:$ /MWh
298:nuclear
53:capital
9181:
9170:
8742:Mining
8596:energy
8504:Causes
7895:Marine
7875:Biogas
7132:10 May
6892:
6831:, In:
6713:3 June
6508:
6500:
6492:
6407:31 May
6258:
6240:Energy
6133:6 June
6124:
5847:
5795:
5708:10 May
5618:EcoFys
5595:
5424:
5151:
5022:
4575:
4539:Medium
4518:
4421:
4313:4 June
4278:
3987:
3792:115.04
3662:235.9
3628:239.7
3594:243.1
3560:261.5
3526:242.0
3492:312.2
3458:256.6
3395:Solar
3192:Turkey
3134:110.7
3117:147.2
3100:190.5
3083:212.7
3029:107.8
2796:104.9
2788:140.5
2763:cycles
2754:202.1
2715:80.65
2699:128.6
2696:62.85
2660:124.4
2650:Biogas
2641:106.4
2638:156.5
2635:147.5
2627:61.15
2573:93.85
2523:43.24
2405:France
2357:": -->
2201:65β81
2163:Hydro
2149:75β98
2140:40β75
2137:57β67
2120:63β80
2108:49β68
2094:29β84
2091:38β53
2079:46β65
2065:36β84
2004:Europe
1948:Solar
1872:Lazard
1751:Solar
1648:Gas CC
1587:Hydro
1536:24β75
1454:24β96
1422:Lazard
1342:asthma
1325:Other
1261:EU ETS
795:France
650:8β42%
9136:urban
8807:roads
8698:paper
8693:paint
8252:(GFI)
8141:(TSO)
7927:Solar
7915:Tidal
7890:Hydro
7609:(PDF)
7440:(PDF)
7358:(PDF)
7351:(PDF)
7126:(PDF)
7119:(PDF)
7050:Ember
6811:4 May
6805:(PDF)
6741:(PDF)
6734:(PDF)
6707:(PDF)
6506:S2CID
6213:(PDF)
6157:(PDF)
6098:(PDF)
5793:S2CID
5739:(PDF)
5702:(PDF)
5695:(PDF)
5678:(PDF)
5593:S2CID
5422:S2CID
5361:(PDF)
5149:S2CID
5114:(PDF)
5020:S2CID
4964:(PDF)
4957:(PDF)
4926:(PDF)
4892:(PDF)
4797:. US
4768:(PDF)
4693:(PDF)
4686:(PDF)
4516:S2CID
4441:(PDF)
4353:Joule
4289:(PDF)
4272:(PDF)
4201:(PDF)
4194:(PDF)
4177:(PDF)
4166:(PDF)
4125:(PDF)
4118:(PDF)
4093:(PDF)
4086:(PDF)
4010:Notes
3795:32.80
3789:34.10
3783:36.61
3780:36.61
3758:117.9
3724:124.6
3656:158.1
3650:102.8
3625:125.3
3622:196.9
3591:130.0
3588:204.1
3557:144.3
3554:221.5
3548:108.4
3539:100.1
3523:152.4
3514:111.4
3489:211.0
3486:243.7
3480:114.0
3455:396.1
3452:191.1
3449:149.3
3446:119.0
3437:100.4
3392:Wind
3217:Japan
3200:from
3185:50.1
3179:0.23
3173:2019
3168:85.8
3165:42.5
3162:0.23
3159:0.37
3156:2018
3151:94.2
3148:51.5
3145:0.21
3142:0.34
3139:2017
3131:52.2
3128:0.20
3125:0.34
3122:2016
3114:55.4
3111:0.19
3108:0.29
3105:2015
3097:66.3
3094:0.20
3091:0.29
3088:2014
3080:72.5
3077:0.20
3074:0.28
3071:2013
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3060:0.17
3057:0.29
3054:2012
3046:76.2
3043:0.17
3040:0.31
3037:2011
3026:0.20
3023:0.26
3020:2010
3009:0.16
3006:0.18
3003:2009
2992:0.19
2989:0.25
2986:2008
2975:0.21
2972:0.17
2969:2007
2958:0.15
2955:0.20
2952:2006
2941:0.19
2938:0.23
2935:2005
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2921:0.23
2918:2004
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2901:2003
2890:0.21
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2853:0.19
2850:2000
2842:Wind
2836:Wind
2825:Year
2804:75.8
2780:2021
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2604:97.5
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2556:2018
2553:2013
2550:2012
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1737:Wind
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1430:2020
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1418:2020
1416:IRENA
1405:2014
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7160:2018
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