208:
perceived as credible. When allies are perceived not to be reliable, allies may make up for it by increasing the number of allies and include "costly reliability-enhancing provisions such as greater precision in when alliance obligations apply, issue linkage, and increased institutionalization." States with a reputation for upholding alliance commitments are more likely to be involved in future alliances.
153:
problems in coercive diplomacy is that it is hard to credibly signal that compliance will not lead to punishment. Some scholars have argued that when great powers increase their power, their credibility to engage in restraint decreases, which may lead weaker adversaries to be less likely to comply with great power threats.
190:
crisis and are then seen as backing down. The implication of audience costs is that threats issued by leaders (who incur audience costs) against other states are more likely to be seen as credible and thus lead those states to meet the demands of the leader making threats. The term was popularized in
152:
Credibility (or reputation) refers to the degree to which an actor is expected to uphold their commitments based on past behavior. In terms of credible coercive diplomacy, credibility entails that defiance will be met with punishment, and that compliance will be met with restraint. One of the main
40:. Credibility is related to concepts such as reputation (how past behavior shapes perceptions of an actor's tendencies) and resolve (the willingness to stand firm while incurring costs). Reputation for resolve may be a key component of credibility, but credibility is also highly context-dependent.
55:
may affect perceptions of credibility. Misperception and miscommunication can lead to erroneous assessments of credibility. Assessments of reputation may be linked to specific leaders, as well as states. Leaders and diplomats generally consider the credibility of their state to be of paramount
181:
Some scholarship suggests that the credibility of threats is enhanced by costly signaling, which means that the threats themselves incur costs, which signify that the threats are genuine. Other scholars argue that sunk-cost signaling is exceedingly rare in practice, as states prefer to signal
207:
The functioning of military alliances revolves around perceptions of credibility: whether an ally will honor alliance commitments. Alliances that are perceived to be unreliable are more likely to end up in war. Scholars have argued that past reputation shapes whether alliance commitments are
211:
States may be more likely to honor alliance commitments due to costly signaling, including audience costs. Some scholars argue that indiscriminate alliance loyalty is not desirable (as that could raise the risk of conflict and entrapment), and that hawkishness may also not be desirable.
1862:
I'm drawing here on arguments about what the IR literature usually calls 'audience costs,' which are domestic political costs a leader may pay for escalating an international dispute, or for making implicit or explicit threats, and then backing down or not following
166:
States may be motivated to pay high costs in order to maintain reputations for resolve. They are most likely to do so when they expect that they will face future challenges where they will benefit from having reputations for resolve.
1515:
230:
74:
focuses on the credibility of coercive threats as a key component of the success of coercive diplomacy. According to Thomas
Schelling, a reputation for resolve "is one of the few things worth fighting over."
185:
A substantial literature points to audience costs as a meaningful form of signaling. An audience cost is the domestic political cost that a leader incurs from his or her constituency if they escalate a
195:
where he argued that democracies carry greater audience costs than authoritarian states, which makes them better at signaling their intentions in interstate disputes. It is one of the mechanisms for
2259:
1811:
149:
and Dustin
Tingley confirm the findings of Sartori's study, as they find that people "invest more heavily in reputation building if they believe a game will be repeated many times."
1841:
2708:
78:
Successful coercion frequently revolves around a demonstration of capabilities and resolve, both of which enhance the credibility of attempts to coerce others. According to
145:
According to Anne
Sartori, states rarely seek to obtain goals through bluffing, because doing so undermines their reputation in future crises. Survey experiment data from
2679:
2646:
24:
is the perceived likelihood that a leader or a state follows through on threats and promises that have been made. Credibility is a key component of
2744:
1805:
1674:
1498:
1053:
968:
930:
895:
765:
703:
629:
555:
468:
401:
374:
344:
317:
2674:
1785:
1480:
418:
1849:
65:
25:
2669:
1080:
995:
1291:"The Obama Administration and Syrian Chemical Weapons: Deterrence, Compellence, and the Limits of the "Resolve plus Bombs" Formula"
1029:
2213:"International reputation and alliance portfolios: How unreliability affects the structure and composition of alliance treaties"
2704:
2699:
44:
1105:
458:
2501:"A Reputation versus Prioritization Trade-Off: Unpacking Allied Perceptions of US Extended Deterrence in Distant Regions"
231:"Redefining the Debate Over Reputation and Credibility in International Security: Promises and Limits of New Scholarship"
2718:
277:
2639:
1664:
1403:
2684:
1331:
2739:
2713:
2694:
2632:
48:
1971:
Fearon, James D. (September 1994). "Domestic
Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Dispute".
196:
17:
2548:"Remember Kabul? Reputation, strategic contexts, and American credibility after the Afghanistan withdrawal"
2070:
131:
Matthew
Fuhrmann and Todd Sechser argue that there are three main components to credibility in coercion:
2061:
Tomz, Michael (2007). "Domestic
Audience Costs in International Relations: An Experimental Approach".
2547:
2075:
2610:
2528:
2481:
2383:
2336:
2287:
2240:
2193:
2146:
2096:
2043:
1996:
1988:
1912:
1904:
1766:
1719:
1645:
1598:
1590:
1543:
1461:
1453:
1271:
1180:
1133:
1086:
1001:
936:
901:
825:
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674:
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523:
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258:
71:
37:
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2563:
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2279:
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2185:
2138:
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1953:
1896:
1801:
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1670:
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1582:
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1384:
1339:
1312:
1263:
1221:
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1125:
1076:
1049:
1022:
991:
964:
926:
891:
866:
809:
761:
736:
699:
666:
625:
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285:
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146:
79:
33:
1797:
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646:
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2512:
2463:
2455:
2414:
2367:
2318:
2271:
2224:
2177:
2130:
2080:
2027:
1980:
1943:
1932:"Politics, audience costs, and signalling: Britain and the 1863–4 Schleswig-Holstein crisis"
1888:
1793:
1750:
1703:
1629:
1574:
1527:
1486:
1437:
1376:
1302:
1255:
1211:
1164:
1117:
856:
801:
728:
658:
584:
497:
242:
163:
Some scholars question whether credibility or reputation matters in international disputes.
160:
are effective in doing so. Other scholars dispute that audience costs enhance credibility.
2689:
1485:. Cambridge Studies in International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1243:
187:
2733:
2614:
2532:
2485:
2387:
2340:
2323:
2291:
2244:
2100:
2047:
1916:
1649:
1602:
1547:
1275:
1184:
1168:
1018:
678:
527:
262:
176:
157:
99:
2444:"What Allies Want: Reconsidering Loyalty, Reliability, and Alliance Interdependence"
2305:
Crescenzi, Mark J.C.; Kathman, Jacob D.; Kleinberg, Katja B.; Wood, Reed M. (2012).
2197:
2000:
1770:
1465:
1365:"Gulliver Unleashed? International Order, Restraint, and The Case of Ancient Athens"
1137:
829:
604:
2419:
2402:
2306:
1784:
Gartzke, Erik A.; Carcelli, Shannon; Gannon, J. Andres; Zhang, Jiakun Jack (2017).
1152:
905:
885:
192:
2598:
2559:
2516:
2181:
1307:
1290:
695:
Reputation for
Resolve: How Leaders Signal Determination in International Politics
2166:"How International Reputation Matters: Revisiting Alliance Violations in Context"
2031:
1825:
Altman, Dan; Quek, Kai (2024). "Do States Really Sink Costs to Signal
Resolve?".
1043:
958:
755:
693:
619:
545:
391:
364:
334:
307:
2582:
2500:
2371:
2165:
588:
52:
29:
2015:
1617:
393:
Statements of
Resolve: Achieving Coercive Credibility in International Conflict
2355:
2275:
2084:
1892:
1633:
1578:
1531:
1216:
1199:
1121:
1106:"The Effect of Repeated Play on Reputation Building: An Experimental Approach"
861:
844:
805:
732:
572:
502:
485:
246:
2606:
2567:
2524:
2477:
2428:
2379:
2332:
2283:
2236:
2228:
2189:
2142:
2092:
2039:
1957:
1900:
1762:
1754:
1715:
1641:
1586:
1539:
1490:
1449:
1388:
1343:
1316:
1267:
1225:
1176:
1129:
870:
813:
740:
670:
596:
511:
430:
289:
254:
2583:"Divided Priorities: Why and When Allies Differ Over Military Intervention"
2212:
1738:
1426:"Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes"
1090:
1070:
1005:
985:
940:
920:
1380:
1200:"Revisiting Reputation: How Past Actions Matter in International Politics"
845:"Revisiting Reputation: How Past Actions Matter in International Politics"
486:"Revisiting Reputation: How Past Actions Matter in International Politics"
2459:
1908:
1876:
1594:
1562:
821:
789:
519:
2468:
2443:
2150:
1992:
1948:
1931:
1723:
1691:
1457:
1425:
662:
1364:
573:"Signaling Foreign Policy Interests: Tying Hands versus Sinking Costs"
336:
Of
Friends and Foes: Reputation and Learning in International Politics
141:
The cost of military conflict (to both the challenger and the target)
2134:
1984:
1707:
1441:
2624:
1259:
2118:
721:"Credibility, Organizational Politics, and Crisis Decision Making"
102:
identifies 8 prerequisites for a successful compellence strategy:
1516:"Winners or Losers? Democracies in International Crisis, 1918–94"
156:
To enhance the credibility of threats, some scholars argue that
2628:
138:
The stakes in a dispute (to both the challenger and the target)
1842:"'Credibility' is not everything but it's not nothing either"
647:"Leader Influence and Reputation Formation in World Politics"
1289:
Bowen, Wyn; Knopf, Jeffrey W.; Moran, Matthew (2020-10-19).
757:
Calculating Credibility: How Leaders Assess Military Threats
460:
Calculating Credibility: How Leaders Assess Military Threats
1242:
Cebul, Matthew D.; Dafoe, Allan; Monteiro, Nuno P. (2020).
1153:"Rationalist and Constructivist Perspectives on Reputation"
960:
Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis
790:"Goliath's Curse: Coercive Threats and Asymmetric Power"
547:
Crucible of Beliefs: Learning, Alliances, and World Wars
121:
Creation of a sense of urgency in the other state's mind
229:
Jervis, Robert; Yarhi-Milo, Keren; Casler, Don (2021).
621:
Perception and Misperception in International Politics
135:
Ability to impose one's will militarily on the target
47:, past reputation, current interests, and signaling.
43:
Credibility may be determined through assessments of
645:
Renshon, Jonathan; Dafoe, Allan; Huth, Paul (2018).
89:
A communication of that commitment to the other side
2662:
2016:"Why We Needed Audience Costs and What We Need Now"
2307:"Reliability, Reputation, and Alliance Formation1"
1739:"Reputations and Signaling in Coercive Bargaining"
1514:Gelpi, Christopher F.; Griesdorf, Michael (2001).
1411:The Power to Hurt: Coercion in Theory and Practice
1618:"The Cost of Empty Threats: A Penny, Not a Pound"
1875:Downes, Alexander B.; Sechser, Todd S. (2012).
1561:Downes, Alexander B.; Sechser, Todd S. (2012).
1330:Altman, Dan; Powers, Kathleen E. (2022-02-02).
1104:Tingley, Dustin H.; Walter, Barbara F. (2011).
1048:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–15.
124:Making the target fear unacceptable escalation
2640:
2546:Kim, D.G.; Byun, Joshua; Ko, Jiyoung (2023).
2356:"Alliances, Credibility, and Peacetime Costs"
1930:Schlesinger, Jayme R.; Levy, Jack S. (2021).
8:
2581:Krebs, Ronald R.; Spindel, Jennifer (2018).
1244:"Coercion and the Credibility of Assurances"
1042:Sechser, Todd S.; Fuhrmann, Matthew (2017).
624:(new ed.). Princeton University Press.
2260:"Reputation, Symmetry, and Alliance Design"
2647:
2633:
2625:
1936:European Journal of International Security
1692:"Deterrence Failure and Crisis Escalation"
1198:Weisiger, Alex; Yarhi-Milo, Keren (2015).
843:Weisiger, Alex; Yarhi-Milo, Keren (2015).
484:Weisiger, Alex; Yarhi-Milo, Keren (2015).
2467:
2418:
2322:
2074:
1947:
1616:Snyder, Jack; Borghard, Erica D. (2011).
1306:
1215:
860:
501:
1877:"The Illusion of Democratic Credibility"
1790:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics
1563:"The Illusion of Democratic Credibility"
1027:The United States and Coercive Diplomacy
419:"American Credibility After Afghanistan"
92:The capability to back up the commitment
221:
182:credibility and resolve in other ways.
2164:LeVeck, Brad L.; Narang, Neil (2017).
1798:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.481
1045:Nuclear Weapons and Coercive Diplomacy
1030:United States Institute of Peace Press
990:. Yale University Press. p. 124.
2211:Narang, Neil; LeVeck, Brad L (2019).
1666:Reputation and International Politics
1430:The American Political Science Review
1237:
1235:
952:
950:
887:Reputation and International Politics
783:
781:
779:
777:
651:American Journal of Political Science
539:
537:
309:Reputation and International Politics
7:
452:
450:
448:
446:
358:
356:
301:
299:
2105:The seminal article is Fearon 1994.
1690:Huth, Paul; Russett, Bruce (1988).
2709:International Political Sociology)
2680:Constructivism (Copenhagen School)
2407:Annual Review of Political Science
1827:Journal of Global Security Studies
963:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
112:Domestic and international support
95:The will to back up the commitment
66:Coercion (international relations)
14:
2499:Kim, Tongfi; Simón, Luis (2022).
2403:"Alliances: Why Write Them Down?"
1973:American Political Science Review
1840:James Fearon (7 September 2013).
1622:American Political Science Review
1520:American Political Science Review
1404:"A Bargaining Theory of Coercion"
417:Kertzer, Joshua D. (2021-09-02).
366:Resolve in International Politics
36:), as well as the functioning of
2324:10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00711.x
1814:from the original on 2018-11-28.
1482:Democracy and Coercive Diplomacy
1169:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2007.00643.x
276:Yarhi-Milo, Keren (2024-06-18).
2311:International Studies Quarterly
2123:International Studies Quarterly
1696:International Studies Quarterly
1369:International Studies Quarterly
2745:International relations theory
2420:10.1146/annurev.polisci.3.1.63
2360:Journal of Conflict Resolution
1743:Journal of Conflict Resolution
1075:. Princeton University Press.
725:Journal of Conflict Resolution
577:Journal of Conflict Resolution
396:. Cambridge University Press.
369:. Princeton University Press.
333:Crescenzi, Mark J. C. (2018).
1:
2599:10.1080/09636412.2018.1483609
2560:10.1080/13523260.2023.2253406
2517:10.1080/09636412.2021.2010889
2182:10.1080/03050629.2017.1237818
1786:"Signaling in Foreign Policy"
1308:10.1080/09636412.2020.1859130
919:Schelling, Thomas C. (1966).
754:Press, Daryl Grayson (2005).
390:McManus, Roseanne W. (2017).
284:. Vol. 103, no. 4.
82:, a credible threat entails:
2552:Contemporary Security Policy
2119:"Alliance Formation and War"
2032:10.1080/09636412.2012.706475
2014:Schultz, Kenneth A. (2012).
1669:. Cornell University Press.
1479:Schultz, Kenneth A. (2001).
890:. Cornell University Press.
760:. Cornell University Press.
698:. Cornell University Press.
692:Lupton, Danielle L. (2020).
550:. Cornell University Press.
463:. Cornell University Press.
312:. Cornell University Press.
2719:Third World Security School
2372:10.1177/0022002794038002005
957:Lebow, Richard Ned (1981).
589:10.1177/0022002797041001004
339:. Oxford University Press.
191:a 1994 academic article by
70:Much of the scholarship on
2761:
2685:Peace and conflict studies
2264:International Organization
2170:International Interactions
2063:International Organization
1881:International Organization
1567:International Organization
1413:. Oxford University Press.
1204:International Organization
1110:International Organization
984:Schelling, Thomas (1966).
849:International Organization
794:International Organization
490:International Organization
174:
63:
2714:Feminist security studies
2695:Critical security studies
2401:Morrow, James D. (2000).
2354:Morrow, James D. (1994).
2276:10.1017/S002081831200029X
2258:Mattes, Michaela (2012).
2217:Journal of Peace Research
2085:10.1017/S0020818307070282
1893:10.1017/S0020818312000161
1737:Sechser, Todd S. (2018).
1663:Mercer, Jonathan (2010).
1634:10.1017/s000305541100027x
1579:10.1017/S0020818312000161
1532:10.1017/S0003055401003148
1424:Fearon, James D. (1994).
1217:10.1017/S0020818314000393
1122:10.1017/S0020818311000026
925:. Yale University Press.
884:Mercer, Jonathan (1996).
862:10.1017/S0020818314000393
806:10.1017/S0020818310000214
788:Sechser, Todd S. (2010).
733:10.1177/00220027241268586
571:Fearon, James D. (1997).
503:10.1017/S0020818314000393
306:Mercer, Jonathan (2010).
247:10.1017/S0043887120000246
2229:10.1177/0022343318808844
2117:Smith, Alastair (1995).
1755:10.1177/0022002716652687
1491:10.1017/cbo9780511491658
457:Press, Daryl G. (2007).
363:Kertzer, Joshua (2016).
2442:Henry, Iain D. (2020).
1248:The Journal of Politics
1151:Sharman, J. C. (2007).
1072:Deterrence by Diplomacy
618:Jervis, Robert (2017).
197:democratic peace theory
127:Asymmetry in motivation
86:A formulated commitment
18:international relations
2448:International Security
1402:Sechser, Todd (2018).
1069:Sartori, Anne (2005).
278:"The Credibility Trap"
118:Clearly stated demands
53:dispositional factors
2460:10.1162/isec_a_00375
1363:Reiter, Dan (2021).
1332:"When Redlines Fail"
719:Casler, Don (2024).
544:Reiter, Dan (1996).
1381:10.1093/isq/sqab061
906:10.7591/j.ctv5rf1n9
1949:10.1017/eis.2021.7
987:Arms and Influence
922:Arms and Influence
663:10.1111/ajps.12335
38:military alliances
2727:
2726:
1807:978-0-19-022863-7
1676:978-0-8014-7489-7
1500:978-0-521-79227-1
1157:Political Studies
1055:978-1-107-10694-9
1032:, Washington, DC.
1023:Patrick M. Cronin
970:978-0-8018-2311-4
932:978-0-300-00221-8
897:978-0-8014-3055-8
767:978-0-8014-4343-5
705:978-1-5017-4773-1
631:978-1-4008-8511-4
557:978-0-8014-3188-3
470:978-0-8014-7415-6
403:978-1-107-17034-6
376:978-1-4008-8364-6
346:978-0-19-060952-8
319:978-0-8014-7489-7
115:Strong leadership
109:Strong motivation
80:Richard Ned Lebow
2752:
2740:Security studies
2656:Security studies
2649:
2642:
2635:
2626:
2619:
2618:
2587:Security Studies
2578:
2572:
2571:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2505:Security Studies
2496:
2490:
2489:
2471:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2422:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2326:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2078:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2020:Security Studies
2011:
2005:
2004:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1951:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1859:
1857:
1848:. Archived from
1837:
1831:
1830:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1781:
1775:
1774:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1408:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1310:
1295:Security Studies
1286:
1280:
1279:
1239:
1230:
1229:
1219:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1039:
1033:
1016:
1010:
1009:
981:
975:
974:
954:
945:
944:
916:
910:
909:
881:
875:
874:
864:
840:
834:
833:
785:
772:
771:
751:
745:
744:
716:
710:
709:
689:
683:
682:
642:
636:
635:
615:
609:
608:
568:
562:
561:
541:
532:
531:
505:
481:
475:
474:
454:
441:
440:
438:
437:
414:
408:
407:
387:
381:
380:
360:
351:
350:
330:
324:
323:
303:
294:
293:
273:
267:
266:
226:
171:Costly signaling
106:Clear objectives
2760:
2759:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2658:
2653:
2623:
2622:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2400:
2399:
2395:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2210:
2209:
2205:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2135:10.2307/2600800
2116:
2115:
2111:
2076:10.1.1.386.7495
2060:
2059:
2055:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1985:10.2307/2944796
1970:
1969:
1965:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1855:
1853:
1846:The Monkey Cage
1839:
1838:
1834:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1808:
1783:
1782:
1778:
1736:
1735:
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1708:10.2307/2600411
1689:
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1560:
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1423:
1422:
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1406:
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1348:
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1336:Foreign Affairs
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423:Foreign Affairs
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2690:Human security
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2659:
2654:
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2644:
2637:
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2621:
2620:
2593:(4): 575–606.
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2538:
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2346:
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2297:
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2223:(3): 379–394.
2203:
2176:(5): 797–821.
2156:
2129:(4): 405–425.
2109:
2053:
2026:(3): 369–375.
2006:
1979:(3): 577–592.
1963:
1942:(3): 338–357.
1922:
1887:(3): 457–489.
1867:
1852:on 18 May 2015
1832:
1817:
1806:
1776:
1749:(2): 318–345.
1729:
1682:
1675:
1655:
1628:(3): 437–456.
1608:
1573:(3): 457–489.
1553:
1526:(3): 633–647.
1506:
1499:
1471:
1436:(3): 577–592.
1416:
1394:
1375:(3): 582–593.
1355:
1322:
1301:(5): 797–831.
1281:
1260:10.1086/711132
1254:(3): 975–991.
1231:
1210:(2): 473–495.
1190:
1143:
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1081:
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241:(1): 167–203.
235:World Politics
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188:foreign policy
175:Main article:
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158:audience costs
147:Barbara Walter
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56:importance.
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2705:Paris School
2700:Welsh School
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2023:
2019:
2009:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1939:
1935:
1925:
1884:
1880:
1870:
1861:
1854:. Retrieved
1850:the original
1845:
1835:
1826:
1820:
1789:
1779:
1746:
1742:
1732:
1702:(1): 29–45.
1699:
1695:
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1523:
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1474:
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1429:
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1358:
1347:. Retrieved
1335:
1325:
1298:
1294:
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1251:
1247:
1207:
1203:
1193:
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2469:1885/206720
1091:j.ctt4cgcgz
1006:j.ctt5vm52s
941:j.ctt5vm52s
49:Situational
30:compellence
22:credibility
2734:Categories
2675:Liberalism
2663:Approaches
1349:2022-02-02
436:2021-09-02
216:References
100:Robert Art
34:deterrence
2615:158264077
2607:0963-6412
2568:1352-3260
2533:245085781
2525:0963-6412
2486:215747296
2478:0162-2889
2429:1094-2939
2388:153652966
2380:0022-0027
2341:154595753
2333:0020-8833
2292:154358095
2284:0020-8183
2245:116786802
2237:0022-3433
2190:0305-0629
2143:0020-8833
2101:154895678
2093:0020-8183
2071:CiteSeerX
2048:153373634
2040:0963-6412
1958:2057-5637
1917:154325372
1901:0020-8183
1856:8 January
1763:0022-0027
1716:0020-8833
1650:144584619
1642:0003-0554
1603:154325372
1587:0020-8183
1548:146346368
1540:0003-0554
1450:0003-0554
1389:0020-8833
1344:0015-7120
1317:0963-6412
1276:225429435
1268:0022-3816
1226:0020-8183
1185:143586272
1177:0032-3217
1130:0020-8183
871:0020-8183
814:0020-8183
741:0022-0027
679:158373803
671:1540-5907
597:0022-0027
528:145699686
512:0020-8183
431:0015-7120
290:0015-7120
263:230529327
255:0043-8871
203:Alliances
2554:: 1–33.
2198:49257491
2001:36315471
1909:23279964
1863:through.
1812:Archived
1771:16739982
1595:23279964
1466:36315471
1138:12230887
830:46107608
822:40930451
605:42473249
520:24758122
72:coercion
60:Coercion
26:coercion
2670:Realism
2151:2600800
1993:2944796
1724:2600411
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2611:S2CID
2529:S2CID
2482:S2CID
2384:S2CID
2337:S2CID
2288:S2CID
2241:S2CID
2194:S2CID
2147:JSTOR
2097:S2CID
2044:S2CID
1997:S2CID
1989:JSTOR
1913:S2CID
1905:JSTOR
1767:S2CID
1720:JSTOR
1646:S2CID
1599:S2CID
1591:JSTOR
1544:S2CID
1462:S2CID
1454:JSTOR
1407:(PDF)
1272:S2CID
1181:S2CID
1134:S2CID
1087:JSTOR
1002:JSTOR
937:JSTOR
902:JSTOR
826:S2CID
818:JSTOR
675:S2CID
601:S2CID
524:S2CID
516:JSTOR
259:S2CID
45:power
2603:ISSN
2564:ISSN
2521:ISSN
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2425:ISSN
2376:ISSN
2329:ISSN
2280:ISSN
2233:ISSN
2186:ISSN
2139:ISSN
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2036:ISSN
1954:ISSN
1897:ISSN
1858:2014
1802:ISBN
1759:ISSN
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1021:and
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737:ISSN
700:ISBN
667:ISSN
626:ISBN
593:ISSN
552:ISBN
508:ISSN
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427:ISSN
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286:ISSN
251:ISSN
51:and
32:and
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