1031:). The additional controllability gives many advantages, notably the ability to switch the IGBTs on and off many times per cycle in order to improve the harmonic performance, and the fact that (being self-commutated) the converter no longer relies on synchronous machines in the AC system for its operation. A voltage-sourced converter can therefore feed power to an AC network consisting only of passive loads, something which is impossible with LCC HVDC. Voltage-source converters are also considerably more compact than line-commutated converters (mainly because much less harmonic filtering is needed) and are preferable to line-commutated converters in locations where space is at a premium, for example on offshore platforms.
663:
612:). Usually one of the valve windings is star (wye)-connected and the other is delta-connected. With twelve valves connecting each of the two sets of three phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase change every 30°, and the levels of low frequency harmonics are considerably reduced, considerably simplifying the filtering requirements. For this reason the twelve-pulse system has become standard on almost all line-commutated converter HVDC systems, although HVDC systems built with mercury arc valves make provision for temporary operation with one of the two six-pulse groups bypassed.
271:, irrespective of its construction. Normally, two valves in the bridge are conducting at any time: one to a phase on the top row and one (from a different phase) on the bottom row. The two conducting valves connect two of the three AC phase voltages, in series, to the DC terminals. Thus, the DC output voltage at any given instant is given by the series combination of two AC phase voltages. For example, if valves V1 and V2 are conducting, the DC output voltage is given by the voltage of phase 1 minus the voltage of phase 3.
620:
630:
325:
1420:
528:
305:
291:
2744:
938:
1376:
3323:
1656:
between the positive and negative DC terminals (something which is impossible with any of the preceding types of VSC). Furthermore, it allows the DC voltage to be of either polarity (like a LCC HVDC scheme), giving rise to the possibility of hybrid LCC and VSC HVDC systems. However, the full-bridge arrangement requires twice as many IGBTs and has higher power losses than the equivalent half-bridge arrangement.
1175:. Several different PWM strategies are possible for HVDC but in all cases the efficiency of the two-level converter is significantly poorer than that of a LCC because of the higher switching losses. A typical LCC HVDC converter station has power losses of around 0.7% at full load (per end, excluding the HVDC line or cable) while with 2-level voltage-source converters the equivalent figure is 2-3% per end.
1305:
1295:
1120:
1071:. Such converters derive their name from the fact that the voltage at the AC output of each phase is switched between two discrete voltage levels, corresponding to the electrical potentials of the positive and negative DC terminals. When the upper of the two valves in a phase is turned on, the AC output terminal is connected to the positive DC terminal, resulting in an output voltage of +
1004:
circumstances because it means that the AC system to which the HVDC converter is connected must always contain synchronous machines in order to provide the timing for the commutating voltage â the HVDC converter cannot feed power into a passive system. This is not a problem supplying additional power to a grid that is already live, but cannot be used as the sole source of power.
54:
1247:) converter, where each phase contains four IGBT valves, each rated at half of the DC line to line voltage, along with two clamping diode valves. The DC capacitor is split into two series-connected branches, with the clamping diode valves connected between the capacitor midpoint and the one-quarter and three-quarter points on each phase. To obtain a positive output voltage (+
1130:
640:
1386:
215:â which held the promise of significantly higher efficiency. Very small mechanical rotary convertors remained in use for niche applications in adverse environments, such as in aircraft and vehicles, as a power conversion method from batteries to the high voltages required for radio and RADAR, until the 1960s and the transistor era.
1142:
596:
With a phase change only every 60°, considerable harmonic distortion is produced at both the DC and AC terminals when the six-pulse arrangement is used. Large filtering components are needed to restore the waveforms to sinusoidal. An enhancement of the six-pulse bridge arrangement uses 12 valves in a
1427:
The MMC differs from other types of converter in that current flows continuously in all six valves of the converter throughout the mains-frequency cycle. As a result, concepts such as "on-state" and "off-state" have no meaning in the MMC. The direct current splits equally into the three phases and
1042:
HVDC systems based on voltage-source converters normally use the six-pulse connection because the converter produces much less harmonic distortion than a comparable LCC and the twelve-pulse connection is unnecessary. This simplifies the construction of the converter transformer. However, there are
1003:
Because thyristors (and mercury rectifiers) can only be turned on (not off) by control action, and rely on the external AC system to effect the turn-off process, the control system only has one degree of freedom â when in the cycle to turn on the thyristor. This limits the usefulness of HVDC in some
953:
Each thyristor valve will typically contain tens or hundreds of thyristor levels, each operating at a different (high) potential with respect to earth. The command information to turn on the thyristors therefore cannot simply be sent using a wire connection â it needs to be isolated. The isolation
278:
period when two valves on the same row of the bridge are conducting simultaneously. For example, if valves V1 and V2 are initially conducting and then valve V3 is turned on, conduction passes from V1 to V3 but for a short period both of these valves conduct simultaneously. During this period, the DC
246:
In a line-commutated converter, the DC current does not change direction; it flows through a large inductance and can be considered almost constant. On the AC side, the converter behaves approximately as a current source, injecting both grid-frequency and harmonic currents into the AC network. For
1347:
capacitor connected between the one-quarter and three-quarter points. The operating principle is similar to that of the diode-clamped converter. Both the diode-clamped and flying capacitor variants of three-level converter can be extended to higher numbers of output levels (for example, five), but
711:
introduced the "Uno Lamm Award" for outstanding contributions in the field of HVDC. The very long anode columns needed for high voltage applications limited the current which could safely be carried by each anode, so most mercury-arc valves for HVDC used several (most often, four) anode columns in
535:
The DC output voltage of the converter steadily becomes less positive as the firing angle is increased: firing angles of up to 90° correspond to rectification and result in positive DC voltages, while firing angles above 90° correspond to inversion and result in negative DC voltages. However, the
1627:
A variant of the MMC, proposed by one manufacturer, involves connecting multiple IGBTs in series in each of the two switches that make up the submodule. This gives an output voltage waveform with fewer, larger, steps than the conventional MMC arrangement. This arrangement is referred to as the
1603:
The MMC has two principal disadvantages. Firstly, the control is much more complex than that of a 2-level converter. Balancing the voltages of each of the submodule capacitors is a significant challenge and requires considerable computing power and high-speed communications between the central
1145:
One method of generating the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the intersective PWM: the signal (here the red sinewave) is compared with a sawtooth waveform (blue). When the latter is less than the former, the PWM signal (magenta) is in high state (1). Otherwise it is in the low
1655:
arrangement, instead of two. The full-bridge variant of MMC allows the submodule capacitor to be inserted into the circuit in either polarity. This confers additional flexibility in controlling the converter and allows the converter to block the fault current which arises from a short-circuit
1397:
Like the two-level converter and the six-pulse line-commutated converter, a MMC consists of six valves, each connecting one AC terminal to one DC terminal. However, where each valve of the two-level converter is effectively a high-voltage controlled switch consisting of a large number of IGBTs
1599:
A typical MMC for an HVDC application contains around 300 submodules connected in series in each valve and is therefore equivalent to a 301 level converter. Consequently, the harmonic performance is excellent and usually no filters are needed. A further advantage of the MMC is that PWM is not
1406:
variant, each submodule contains two IGBTs connected in series across the capacitor, with the midpoint connection and one of the two capacitor terminals brought out as external connections. Depending on which of the two IGBTs in each submodule is turned on, the capacitor is either bypassed or
1178:
Another disadvantage of the two-level converter is that, in order to achieve the very high operating voltages required for an HVDC scheme, several hundred IGBTs have to be connected in series and switched simultaneously in each valve. This requires specialised types of IGBT with sophisticated
523:
across a valve becomes positive (at which point a diode would start to conduct) and the thyristors being turned on. From the foregoing equation, it is clear that as the firing angle increases, the mean DC output voltage decreases. In fact, with a line-commutated converter, the firing angle
978:
As of 2012, thyristor valves had been used on over 100 HVDC schemes, with many more still under construction or being planned. The highest power rating of any single HVDC converter (twelve-pulse bridge) in operation was 2000 MW in 2010, on the ±660 kV NingdongâShandong scheme in
165:
As of 2012, both the line-commutated and voltage-source technologies are important, with line-commutated converters used mainly where very high capacity and efficiency are needed, and voltage-source converters used mainly for interconnecting weak AC systems, for connecting large-scale
476:
1600:
necessary, with the result that the power losses are much lower than those of the 2-level converter, at around 1% per end. Finally, because direct series-connection of IGBTs is not necessary, the IGBT gate drives do not need to be as sophisticated as those for a 2-level converter.
239:. Although HVDC converters can, in principle, be constructed from diodes, such converters can only be used in rectification mode and the lack of controllability of the DC voltage is a serious disadvantage. Consequently, in practice all LCC HVDC systems use either grid-controlled
1636:
722:
Mercury arc valves for HVDC were rugged but required high maintenance. Because of this, most mercury-arc HVDC systems were built with bypass switchgear across each six-pulse bridge so that the HVDC scheme could be operated in six-pulse mode for short periods of maintenance.
1632:(CTL) converter. Functionally it is exactly equivalent to the conventional half-bridge MMC in every respect except for the harmonic performance, which is slightly inferior â although still claimed to be good enough to avoid the need for filtering in most instances.
1034:
In contrast to line-commutated HVDC converters, voltage-source converters maintain a constant polarity of DC voltage and power reversal is achieved instead by reversing the direction of current. This makes voltage-source converters much easier to connect into a
970:
control electronics, which derives its power from the voltage across each thyristor. The alternative direct optical triggering method dispenses with most of the high-side electronics, instead using light pulses from the control electronics to switch
1604:
control unit and the valve. Secondly, the submodule capacitors themselves are large and bulky. A MMC is considerably larger than a comparable-rated 2-level converter, although this may be offset by the saving in space from not requiring filters.
1415:
is the submodule capacitor voltage). With a suitable number of submodules connected in series, the valve can synthesize a stepped voltage waveform that approximates very closely to a sine-wave and contains very low levels of harmonic distortion.
203:. Kimbark reports that this system operated quite reliably; however, the total end to end efficiency (at around 70%) was poor by today's standards. From the 1930s onwards, extensive research started to take place into static alternatives using
1336:. However, the modest improvement in harmonic performance came at a considerable price in terms of increased complexity, and the design proved to be difficult to scale up to DC voltages higher than the ±150 kV used on those two projects.
693:, with designs that had evolved from those used on high power industrial rectifiers. A number of adaptations were needed to make such valves suitable for HVDC, in particular the use of anode voltage grading electrodes to minimise the risk of
601:. A twelve-pulse bridge is effectively two six-pulse bridges connected in series on the DC side and arranged with a phase displacement between their respective AC supplies so that some of the harmonic voltages and currents are cancelled.
1595:
1515:
1063:. The two-level converter is the simplest type of three-phase voltage-source converter and can be thought of as a six pulse bridge in which the thyristors have been replaced by IGBTs with inverse-parallel diodes, and the DC smoothing
929:
need to be connected in parallel with each thyristor in order to ensure that the voltage across the valve is shared uniformly between the thyristors. The thyristor plus its grading circuits and other auxiliary equipment is known as a
186:
As early as the 1880s, the advantages of DC long-distance transmission were starting to become evident and several commercial power transmission systems were put into operation. The most successful of these used the system invented by
3386:
524:
represents the only fast way of controlling the converter. Firing angle control is used to regulate the DC voltages of both ends of the HVDC system continuously in order to obtain the desired level of power transfer.
38:(HVDC), or vice versa. HVDC is used as an alternative to AC for transmitting electrical energy over long distances or between AC power systems of different frequencies. HVDC converters capable of converting up to two
1287:) the bottom two IGBT valves are turned on and to obtain zero output voltage the middle two IGBT valves are turned on. In this latter state, the two clamping diode valves complete the current path through the phase.
1091:
with respect to the midpoint potential of the converter. Conversely when the lower valve in a phase is turned on, the AC output terminal is connected to the negative DC terminal, resulting in an output voltage of
337:
308:
Commutation process explained. When just valves 1 and 2 are conducting, the DC voltage is formed from two of the three phase voltages. During the overlap period the DC voltage is formed from all three phase
2569:
1112:. The two valves corresponding to one phase must never be turned on simultaneously, as this would result in an uncontrolled discharge of the DC capacitor, risking severe damage to the converter equipment.
2023:
Cory, B.J., Adamson, C., Ainsworth, J.D., Freris, L.L., Funke, B., Harris, L.A., Sykes, J.H.M., High voltage direct current converters and systems, Macdonald & Co. (publishers) Ltd, 1965, chapter 3.
983:. Two such converters are provided at each end of the scheme, which is of conventional bipolar construction. Since 2007 the highest voltage rating of a single HVDC converter has been the ±450 kV
1158:(PWM) is always used to improve the harmonic distortion of the converter. As a result of the PWM, the IGBTs are switched on and off many times (typically 20) in each mains cycle. This results in high
2182:
2532:
Cory, B.J., Adamson, C., Ainsworth, J.D., Freris, L.L., Funke, B., Harris, L.A., Sykes, J.H.M., High voltage direct current converters and systems, Macdonald & Co. (publishers) Ltd, 1965.
1668:
VSC systems aim to achieve the low losses and high harmonic performance of the MMC with a more compact design and greater controllability, but these concepts are still at the research stage.
274:
Because of the unavoidable (but beneficial) inductance in the AC supply, the transition from one pair of conducting valves to the next does not happen instantly. Rather, there is a short
321:
in the DC voltage. An important effect of this is that the mean DC output voltage decreases as the overlap period increases; hence the mean DC voltage falls with increasing DC current.
3359:
586:
2062:
Nekrasov, A.M., Posse, A.V., Work done in the Soviet Union on High-Voltage Long-Distance DC power transmission, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 78, part 3A, August 1959, pp515–521.
251:. Because the direction of current cannot be varied, reversal of the direction of power flow (where required) is achieved by reversing the polarity of DC voltage at both stations.
962:. Two optical methods are used: indirect and direct optical triggering. In the indirect optical triggering method, the low-voltage control electronics sends light pulses along
103:, may be optimised for power flow in only one preferred direction. In such schemes, power flow in the non-preferred direction may have a reduced capacity or poorer efficiency.
2462:
MacLeod, N.M., Lancaster, A.C., Oates, C.D.M., The development of a Power
Electronic Building Block for use in Voltage Source Converters for HVDC transmission applications,
2148:
1868:
708:
2328:
Westerweller T., Friedrich, K., Armonies, U., Orini, A., Parquet, D., Wehn, S., Trans Bay cable â world's first HVDC system using multilevel voltage-sourced converter,
1389:
Operating principle of
Modular Multi-Level Converter (MMC) for HVDC, with four series-connected submodules per valve. For clarity only one phase of the three is shown.
2306:
Railing, B.D., Miller, J.J., Steckley, P., Moreau, G., Bard, P., Ronström, L., Lindberg, J., Cross Sound Cable project â second generation VSC technology for HVDC,
267:, containing six electronic switches, each connecting one of the three phases to one of the two DC terminals. A complete switching element is usually referred to as a
1807:
79:(converting DC to AC). Some HVDC systems take full advantage of this bi-directional property (for example, those designed for cross-border power trading, such as the
1522:
1442:
2499:
2476:
2463:
2376:
2329:
2307:
2290:
2267:
2246:
2123:
2072:
1852:
1770:
1398:
connected in series, each valve of a MMC is a separate controllable voltage source in its own right. Each MMC valve consists of a number of independent converter
921:
of only a few kilovolts each, HVDC thyristor valves are built using large numbers of thyristors connected in series. Additional passive components such as grading
2595:
2289:
Mattsson, I., Railing, B.D., Williams, B., Moreau, G., Clarke, C.D., Ericsson, A., Miller, J.J., Murraylink â the longest underground HVDC cable in the world,
2498:
Trainer, D.R., Davidson, C.C., Oates, C.D.M., MacLeod, N.M., Critchley, D.R., Crookes, R.W., A New Hybrid
Voltage-Sourced Converter for HVDC Power Transmission,
2446:
536:
firing angle cannot be extended all the way to 180°, for two reasons. Firstly, allowance must be made for the overlap angle Ό, and secondly for an additional
3539:
3352:
3268:
761:
540:Îł which is needed for the valves to recover their ability to withstand positive voltage after conducting current. The extinction angle Îł is related to the
1428:
the alternating current splits equally into the upper and lower valve of each phase. The current in each valve is therefore related to the direct current I
726:
Mercury arc valves were built with ratings of up to 150 kV, 1800 A. The last (and most powerful) mercury arc system installed was that of the
2434:
2199:
2169:
2033:
1754:
192:
3345:
191:
and were based on the principle of connecting several motor-generator sets in series on the DC side. The best-known example was the 200 km,
1133:
Operating principle of 2-level converter, single-phase representation (Voltage in Graph : Output voltage with respect to DC Bus Mid Point)
471:{\displaystyle {V_{\mathrm {dc} }=V_{\mathrm {av} }={\frac {3V_{\mathrm {LLpeak} }}{\pi }}\cos(\alpha )}-{6fL_{\mathrm {c} }I_{\mathrm {d} }}}
2410:
227:
indicates that the conversion process relies on the line voltage of the AC system to which the converter is connected in order to effect the
1832:
3655:
3326:
2393:
Falahi, G.; Huang, A. Q. (2015-09-01). "Design consideration of an MMC-HVDC system based on 4500V/4000A emitter turn-off (ETO) thyristor".
833:
1052:
3165:
882:
727:
675:
2084:
Cogle, T.C.J, The Nelson River
Project - Manitoba Hydro exploits sub-arctic hydro power resources, Electrical Review, 23 November 1973.
1348:
the complexity of the circuit increases disproportionately and such circuits have not been considered practical for HVDC applications.
1320:
converter, the clamping diode valves are replaced by IGBT valves, giving additional controllability. Such converters were used on the
3590:
3273:
2743:
2588:
1407:
connected into the circuit. Each submodule therefore acts as an independent two-level converter generating a voltage of either 0 or U
1011:(IGBT), both turn-on and turn-off timing can be controlled, giving a second degree of freedom. As a result, IGBTs can be used to make
3600:
2893:
2551:
2540:
2523:
2233:
2216:
2002:
1980:
1954:
1928:
1889:
1712:
662:
159:
1664:
Various other types of converter have been proposed, combining features of the two-level and
Modular Multi-Level Converters. These
231:
from one switching device to its neighbour. Line-commutated converters use switching devices that are either uncontrolled (such as
174:
HVDC systems in future. The market for voltage-source converter HVDC is growing fast, driven partly by the surge in investment in
127:
sets connected in series on the DC side and in parallel on the AC side. However, all HVDC systems built since the 1940s have used
2375:
Jacobsson, B., Karlsson, P., Asplund, G., Harnefors, L., Jonsson, T., VSC - HVDC transmission with cascaded two-level converters,
1199:. Three-level converters can synthesize three (instead of only two) discrete voltage levels at the AC terminal of each phase: +
50:
may contain several such converters in series and/or parallel to achieve total system DC voltage ratings of up to 1,100 kV.
2475:
Voltage Source
Converter (VSC) HVDC for Power Transmission â Economic Aspects and Comparison with other AC and DC Technologies,
1023:
by a large capacitance, can be considered constant. For this reason, an HVDC converter using IGBTs is usually referred to as a
623:
A 12-pulse HVDC converter using mercury arc valves, with a bypass valve and bypass switch across each of the two 6-pulse bridges
3473:
3437:
3056:
2981:
2852:
2145:
317:
During the overlap period, the output DC voltage is lower than it would otherwise be and the overlap period produces a visible
2564:
3616:
1753:
Davidson, C.C., Preedy, R.M., Cao, J., Zhou, C., Fu, J., Ultra-High-Power
Thyristor Valves for HVDC in Developing Countries,
1738:
1195:
In an attempt to improve on the poor harmonic performance of the two-level converter, some HVDC systems have been built with
1043:
several different configurations of voltage-source converter and research is continuing to take place into new alternatives.
734:, which used six anode columns in parallel per valve and was completed in 1977. The last operating mercury arc system (the
3228:
3160:
3150:
3026:
2926:
2581:
2546:
Mohan, N., Undeland, T.M., Robbins, W.P., Power
Electronics - converters, applications and design, John Wiley & Sons,
2211:
Mohan, N., Undeland, T.M., Robbins, W.P., Power
Electronics - converters, applications and design, John Wiley & Sons,
1975:
Mohan, N., Undeland, T.M., Robbins, W.P., Power
Electronics - converters, applications and design, John Wiley & Sons,
1777:
715:
Usually, each arm of each six-pulse bridge consisted of only one mercury-arc valve, but two projects built in the former
3447:
3081:
3041:
2618:
2503:
2380:
2333:
2311:
2294:
1794:
1184:
917:, but with an extra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a defined instant. Because thyristors have
199:, which operated commercially from 1906 to 1936 transmitting power from the Moutiers hydroelectric plant to the city of
2198:
Voltage sourced converter (VSC) valves for high-voltage direct current (HVDC) power transmission â Electrical testing,
1419:
3478:
3308:
3303:
3021:
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2986:
2962:
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2663:
1677:
902:
35:
1851:
Asplund, G., Svensson, K., Jiang, H., Lindberg, J., PĂ„lsson, R., DC transmission based on voltage source converters,
795:
3524:
3483:
3223:
2941:
2911:
2688:
2433:
Davidson, C.C., Trainer, D.R., Innovative concepts for hybrid multi-level converters for HVDC power transmission,
3544:
3278:
2767:
2728:
2129:
699:
at the very high reverse voltages experienced in HVDC. Much of the pioneering work in this area was performed in
2482:
2273:
2249:
3503:
3427:
3253:
3061:
3001:
2658:
2518:
Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, second edition, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
1997:
Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, second edition, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
1923:
Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, second edition, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
1733:
Arrillaga, Jos; High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, second edition, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
154:
from the 1970s to the present day. Voltage-source converters (VSC), which first appeared in HVDC in 1997, use
619:
553:
111:
HVDC converters can take several different forms. Early HVDC systems, built until the 1930s, were effectively
279:
output voltage is given by the average of the voltages of phases 1 and 2, minus the voltage of phase 3. The
178:, with one particular type of converter, the Modular Multi-Level Converter (MMC) emerging as a front-runner.
3634:
3549:
3498:
3192:
3182:
3172:
2350:"Design, Modeling and Control of Modular Multilevel Converter based HVDC Systems. - NCSU Digital Repository"
2037:
1611:
scheme but many larger schemes are under construction, including an underground cable interconnection from
1150:
The simplest (and also, the highest-amplitude) waveform that can be produced by a two-level converter is a
629:
324:
3621:
3113:
2976:
2759:
2648:
1867:
Lesnicar, A., Marquardt, R., An innovative modular multi-level converter topology for a wide power range,
1682:
1340:
1155:
995:, which has only a single converter at each end in an arrangement that is unusual for an LCC HVDC scheme.
146:
are made with switching devices that can be turned both on and off. Line-commutated converters (LCC) used
47:
283:Ό (or u) in an HVDC converter increases with the load current, but is typically around 20° at full load.
3595:
3248:
3016:
3011:
2991:
1697:
1687:
1019:
in operation. In such converters, the polarity of DC voltage is usually fixed and the DC voltage, being
975:(LTTs), although a small monitoring electronics unit may still be required for protection of the valve.
840:
527:
304:
2097:
719:
used two or three mercury-arc valves in series per arm, without parallel connection of anode columns.
3419:
2842:
2604:
604:
The phase displacement between the two AC supplies is usually 30° and is realised by using converter
223:
Most of the HVDC systems in operation today are based on line-commutated converters (LCC). The term
1160:
3213:
3046:
2946:
2921:
2874:
2683:
2673:
2638:
2071:
Calverley T.E., Gavrilovic, A., Last F.H., Mott C.W., The Kingsnorth-Beddington-Willesden DC Link,
1020:
850:
175:
31:
1881:
290:
3409:
3087:
2698:
2416:
1829:
781:
124:
80:
61:
Almost all HVDC converters are inherently bi-directional; they can convert either from AC to DC (
1375:
1590:{\displaystyle {I_{\mathrm {v} }={\frac {I_{\mathrm {d} }}{3}}-{\frac {I_{\mathrm {ac} }}{2}}}}
1510:{\displaystyle {I_{\mathrm {v} }={\frac {I_{\mathrm {d} }}{3}}+{\frac {I_{\mathrm {ac} }}{2}}}}
3238:
3118:
2723:
2547:
2536:
2519:
2406:
2229:
2212:
2168:
High-voltage direct current (HVDC) power transmission using voltage sourced converters (VSC),
1998:
1976:
1950:
1924:
1885:
1734:
1702:
1329:
942:
918:
735:
695:
690:
671:
657:
240:
208:
147:
1769:
Skog, J.E., van Asten, H., Worzyk, T., AndersrĂžd, T., Norned â World's longest power cable,
1356:
First proposed for HVDC applications in 2003 by Marquardt and first used commercially in the
3554:
3187:
3128:
2832:
2827:
2804:
2713:
2653:
2398:
742:) was shut down in 2012. Mercury arc valves were also used on the following HVDC projects:
116:
112:
1635:
490:- the peak value of the line to line input voltage (on the converter side of the converter
328:
Voltage and current waveforms for a six-pulse bridge at alpha=20° with overlap angle of 20°
3580:
3570:
3488:
3442:
3432:
3391:
3369:
3218:
3177:
3155:
3036:
3006:
2971:
2931:
2733:
2486:
2277:
2152:
2133:
1940:
Kimbark, E.W., Direct current transmission, volume 1, Wiley Interscience, 1971, pp 71â128.
1836:
1793:
Rowe, B.A., Goodrich, F.G., Herbert, I.R., Commissioning the Cross Channel h.v.d.c. link,
1781:
1608:
1402:, each containing its own storage capacitor. In the most common form of the circuit, the
1357:
1008:
868:
204:
1154:; however this would produce unacceptable levels of harmonic distortion, so some form of
809:
2535:
Williams, B.W., Power Electronics - devices, drivers and applications, Macmillan Press,
2228:
Williams, B.W., Power Electronics - devices, drivers and applications, Macmillan Press,
1949:
Williams, B.W., Power Electronics - devices, drivers and applications, Macmillan Press,
3529:
3243:
3233:
3031:
2643:
937:
120:
24:
1901:
Kimbark, E.W., Direct current transmission, volume 1, Wiley Interscience, 1971, pp3â4.
1607:
As of 2012 the largest-capacity MMC HVDC system in operation is still the 400 MW
53:
3649:
3629:
3575:
3263:
3051:
2936:
2916:
2847:
2837:
2794:
2678:
2633:
1966:
Kimbark, E.W., Direct current transmission, volume 1, Wiley Interscience, 1971, p 75.
1361:
1333:
1165:
963:
910:
862:
188:
92:
2420:
1308:
Operating principle of 3-level, diode-clamped converter, single-phase representation
548:
of the thyristors. A typical value of Îł is 15°. α, Îł and ÎŒ are inter-related thus:
3534:
3404:
3283:
3258:
3123:
3092:
2906:
2708:
771:
747:
716:
46:(kV) have been built, and even higher ratings are technically feasible. A complete
28:
3337:
170:
to the grid or for HVDC interconnections that are likely to be expanded to become
2349:
1368:(MMC) is now becoming the most common type of voltage-source converter for HVDC.
3493:
3457:
3108:
3076:
2869:
2857:
2777:
2703:
2693:
2623:
1757:
9th International Conference on AC/DC Power Transmission, London, October 2010.
1304:
1294:
1151:
1129:
1119:
992:
955:
946:
858:
739:
605:
491:
128:
96:
69:). A complete HVDC system always includes at least one converter operating as a
2529:
Kimbark, E.W., Direct current transmission, volume 1, Wiley Interscience, 1971.
2146:
High Voltage Direct Current Transmission â Proven Technology for Power Exchange
1619:
consisting of two 1000 MW links in parallel at a voltage of ±320 kV.
1343:
but never in HVDC, replaces the clamping diode valves by a separate, isolated,
1267:) the top two IGBT valves are turned on, to obtain a negative output voltage (-
3508:
3452:
3399:
3071:
3066:
2879:
2862:
2718:
2402:
1321:
1172:
823:
167:
155:
1774:
2787:
2782:
2668:
2628:
2186:
1707:
1692:
1325:
1068:
972:
922:
898:
295:
260:
236:
212:
151:
71:
2437:
9th International Conference on AC and DC Power Transmission, London, 2010.
1806:
Praça, A., Arakari, H., Alves, S.R., Eriksson, K., Graham, J., Biledt, G.,
1385:
1059:
in 1997) until 2012, most of the VSC HVDC systems built were based on the
247:
this reason, a line-commutated converter for HVDC is also considered as a
3585:
2901:
1652:
1298:
Three-phase, three-level, diode-clamped voltage-source converter for HVDC
1064:
1016:
926:
704:
679:
667:
519:
The firing angle α represents the time delay from the point at which the
39:
639:
2822:
2812:
2573:
2450:
2156:
876:
817:
803:
785:
755:
520:
84:
2817:
2479:
2270:
2126:
1811:
1612:
1056:
988:
984:
959:
906:
886:
872:
854:
844:
813:
799:
789:
775:
765:
751:
731:
700:
683:
531:
Valve voltage and current for inverter operation with Îł=20° and ÎŒ=20°
235:) or that can only be turned on (not off) by control action, such as
196:
139:
134:
Electronic converters for HVDC are divided into two main categories.
100:
91:). Others, for example those designed to export power from a remote
88:
1634:
1616:
1418:
1140:
980:
914:
827:
661:
638:
526:
232:
52:
1808:
Itaipu HVDC Transmission System - 10 years operational experience
332:
The mean DC output voltage of a six-pulse converter is given by:
2772:
200:
43:
3341:
2577:
707:, widely considered the "Father of HVDC" and in whose name the
259:
The basic LCC configuration for HVDC uses a three-phase Graetz
1316:
In a refinement of the diode-clamped converter, the so-called
1141:
294:
Three-phase full-wave (Graetz) bridge rectifier circuit using
2395:
2015 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE)
2014:
Rissik, H., Mercury-Arc Current Converters, Pitman. 1941.
1379:
Three-phase Modular Multi-Level Converter (MMC) for HVDC.
2245:
Components Testing of VSC System for HVDC Applications,
1123:
Three-phase, two-level voltage-source converter for HVDC
1839:, 3rd Australasian Engineering Heritage Conference 2009
1830:
The History of High Voltage Direct Current Transmission
75:(converting AC to DC) and at least one operating as an
243:(until the 1970s) or thyristors (to the present day).
1525:
1445:
1007:
With other types of semiconductor device such as the
941:
A twelve-pulse thyristor converter for Pole 2 of the
556:
340:
1339:
Another type of three-level converter, used in some
901:
valve was first used in HVDC systems in 1972 on the
3563:
3517:
3466:
3418:
3376:
3292:
3202:
3139:
3101:
2955:
2892:
2803:
2758:
2751:
2611:
1051:From the very first VSC-HVDC scheme installed (the
1589:
1509:
1171:in the IGBTs and reduces the overall transmission
949:. The person at the bottom gives an idea of scale.
580:
470:
1871:Power Tech Conference, Bologna, Italy, June 2003.
1239:. A common type of three-level converter is the
2183:HVDC Grids for offshore and onshore transmission
633:A 12-pulse HVDC converter using thyristor valves
2344:
2342:
2324:
2322:
2320:
42:(GW) and with voltage ratings of up to 900 kilo
1183:circuits, and can lead to very high levels of
3353:
2589:
2092:
2090:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1855:session, Paris, 1998, paper reference 14-302.
8:
2371:
2369:
1729:
1727:
1423:MMC valve showing possible conduction states
738:link between the North and South Islands of
2262:
2260:
2258:
2058:
2056:
2054:
1863:
1861:
3360:
3346:
3338:
2755:
2596:
2582:
2574:
2565:CIGRĂ B4 Compendium of HVDC Schemes, 2009.
1749:
1747:
643:Explain the concept of quadrivalve by HVDC
608:with two different secondary windings (or
1847:
1845:
1571:
1570:
1564:
1549:
1548:
1542:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1491:
1490:
1484:
1469:
1468:
1462:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1444:
555:
460:
459:
448:
447:
436:
389:
388:
378:
365:
364:
347:
346:
341:
339:
1384:
1374:
1303:
1293:
1128:
1118:
936:
628:
618:
581:{\displaystyle \gamma =180-\alpha -\mu }
323:
303:
289:
138:(HVDC classic) are made with electronic
1882:The History of Electric Wires and Cable
1824:
1822:
1820:
1723:
1660:Other types of voltage-source converter
945:between the North and South Islands of
1765:
1763:
1651:submodule containing four IGBTs in an
1647:MMC submodule described above, with a
506:- the commutating inductance per phase
2034:"IEEE list of Uno Lamm award winners"
497:α - the firing angle of the thyristor
7:
1741:, 1998, Chapter 1, pp 1-9.
954:method can be magnetic (using pulse
193:LyonâMoutiers DC transmission scheme
1884:, Peter Peregrinus, London, 1983,
1352:Modular Multi-Level Converter (MMC)
1067:have been replaced by DC smoothing
883:Nelson River DC Transmission System
728:Nelson River DC Transmission System
676:Nelson River DC Transmission System
592:Line Commutated Twelve-pulse bridge
3591:Renewable energy commercialization
3274:Renewable energy commercialization
2075:session, Paris, 1968, paper 43-04.
1575:
1572:
1550:
1533:
1495:
1492:
1470:
1453:
1055:experimental link commissioned in
461:
449:
405:
402:
399:
396:
393:
390:
369:
366:
351:
348:
14:
3601:United States energy independence
2466:Colloquium, Bergen, Norway, 2009.
1713:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
1643:Another alternative replaces the
1009:insulated-gate bipolar transistor
909:. The thyristor is a solid-state
160:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
3322:
3321:
2742:
255:Line-commutated six-pulse bridge
3474:Flexible AC transmission system
3387:Smartgrids Technology Platform
2005:, 1998, Chapter 7, pp 159-199.
429:
423:
1:
3540:Renewable Energy Certificates
3269:Renewable Energy Certificates
3229:Cost of electricity by source
3151:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
3027:High-voltage shore connection
1366:Modular Multi-Level Converter
3448:Nonintrusive load monitoring
3284:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
3082:Transmission system operator
3042:Mains electricity by country
2619:Automatic generation control
2122:Compendium of HVDC schemes,
1931:, 1998, Chapter 2, pp 10-55.
1797:Review, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1987.
1318:active neutral-point clamped
1185:electromagnetic interference
1015:which are closer to a large
182:Electromechanical converters
142:that can only be turned on.
3656:High-voltage direct current
3467:Other technologies/concepts
3309:List of electricity sectors
3304:Electric energy consumption
3022:High-voltage direct current
2997:Electric power transmission
2987:Electric power distribution
2664:Energy return on investment
2489:, April 2012, section 2.5.3
2102:IEEE Global History Network
1678:High-voltage direct current
903:Eel River Converter Station
780:The original (160 MW)
36:high-voltage direct current
3672:
3525:Carbon capture and storage
3224:Carbon offsets and credits
2942:Three-phase electric power
2480:Technical Brochure No. 492
2271:Technical Brochure No. 269
2250:Technical Brochure No. 447
2127:Technical Brochure No. 003
1039:HVDC system or "DC Grid".
1013:self-commutated converters
973:light-triggered thyristors
655:
219:Line-commutated converters
144:Voltage-sourced converters
3609:
3545:Renewable Energy Payments
3317:
3279:Renewable Energy Payments
2768:Fossil fuel power station
2740:
2403:10.1109/ECCE.2015.7310149
2098:"List of IEEE Milestones"
1639:Full-bridge MMC submodule
1432:and alternating current I
1029:voltage-sourced converter
999:Voltage-source converters
298:as the switching elements
136:Line-commutated converter
57:Symbol for HVDC converter
3504:Power-line communication
3062:Single-wire earth return
3002:Electrical busbar system
2659:Energy demand management
1025:voltage-source converter
249:current-source converter
107:Types of HVDC converters
3550:Renewable energy policy
3499:Phasor measurement unit
3405:Pickens Plan super grid
3193:Residual-current device
3183:Power system protection
3173:Generator interlock kit
1341:adjustable-speed drives
881:The first phase of the
849:The first phase of the
839:The first phase of the
832:The first phase of the
826:frequency converter in
808:The first phase of the
770:The first phase of the
689:Early LCC systems used
3479:HVDC bulk transmission
2977:Distributed generation
2649:Electric power quality
2504:paper reference B4-111
2502:session, Paris, 2010,
2397:. pp. 3462â3467.
2381:paper reference B4-110
2379:session, Paris, 2010,
2334:paper reference B4-101
2332:session, Paris, 2010,
2312:paper reference B4-102
2310:session, Paris, 2004,
2295:paper reference B4-103
2293:session, Paris, 2004,
1775:paper reference B1-106
1773:session, Paris, 2010,
1683:HVDC converter station
1640:
1591:
1511:
1424:
1390:
1380:
1309:
1299:
1197:three level converters
1156:pulse-width modulation
1147:
1134:
1124:
950:
913:device similar to the
834:ItalyâCorsicaâSardinia
686:
644:
634:
624:
582:
532:
472:
329:
310:
299:
58:
3617:Electricity economics
3596:Rural electrification
3249:Fossil fuel phase-out
3017:Electricity retailing
3012:Electrical substation
2992:Electric power system
2447:INELFE interconnector
1698:Inverter (electrical)
1688:List of HVDC projects
1638:
1592:
1512:
1422:
1388:
1378:
1307:
1297:
1245:neutral-point-clamped
1191:Three-level converter
1144:
1132:
1122:
940:
665:
642:
632:
622:
583:
530:
473:
327:
307:
293:
150:until the 1970s, or
131:(static) converters.
56:
16:Electricity converter
3420:Efficient energy use
2605:Electricity delivery
2202:62501:2009, Annex A.
1523:
1443:
712:parallel per valve.
554:
515:- the direct current
338:
65:) or from DC to AC (
3214:Availability factor
3166:Sulfur hexafluoride
3047:Overhead power line
2947:Virtual power plant
2922:Induction generator
2875:Sustainable biofuel
2684:Home energy storage
2674:Grid energy storage
2639:Droop speed control
2236:, 1992, pp 359â371.
2219:, 1995, pp 225-236.
2185:, EWEA Conference,
1983:, 1995, pp 148-150.
1957:, 1992, pp 287â291.
1061:two level converter
1047:Two-level converter
851:Pacific DC Intertie
599:twelve-pulse bridge
176:offshore wind power
32:alternating current
3410:Unified Smart Grid
3088:Transmission tower
2699:Nameplate capacity
2485:2016-02-04 at the
2276:2016-02-04 at the
2266:VSC Transmission,
2151:2012-09-15 at the
2132:2014-07-08 at the
1835:2019-02-04 at the
1780:2015-09-23 at the
1641:
1630:Cascaded Two Level
1587:
1507:
1425:
1391:
1381:
1310:
1300:
1148:
1135:
1125:
951:
919:breakdown voltages
691:mercury-arc valves
687:
652:Mercury arc valves
645:
635:
625:
578:
533:
468:
330:
311:
300:
241:mercury-arc valves
209:mercury-arc valves
148:mercury-arc valves
59:
3643:
3642:
3428:Demand management
3335:
3334:
3239:Environmental tax
3119:Cascading failure
2888:
2887:
2724:Utility frequency
2412:978-1-4673-7151-3
1703:Mercury-arc valve
1584:
1559:
1504:
1479:
1395:
1394:
1330:Cross Sound Cable
1314:
1313:
1139:
1138:
958:) but is usually
943:HVDC Inter-Island
796:VolgogradâDonbass
736:HVDC Inter-Island
672:mercury-arc valve
658:Mercury-arc valve
649:
648:
415:
315:
314:
117:electromechanical
113:rotary converters
48:converter station
3663:
3635:Renewable energy
3555:Soft energy path
3368:Modernizing the
3362:
3355:
3348:
3339:
3325:
3324:
3234:Energy subsidies
3188:Protective relay
3129:Rolling blackout
2756:
2746:
2714:Power-flow study
2654:Electrical fault
2598:
2591:
2584:
2575:
2507:
2496:
2490:
2473:
2467:
2460:
2454:
2444:
2438:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2390:
2384:
2373:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2354:www.lib.ncsu.edu
2346:
2337:
2326:
2315:
2304:
2298:
2287:
2281:
2264:
2253:
2243:
2237:
2226:
2220:
2209:
2203:
2196:
2190:
2179:
2173:
2166:
2160:
2143:
2137:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2094:
2085:
2082:
2076:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2036:. Archived from
2030:
2024:
2021:
2015:
2012:
2006:
1995:
1984:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1958:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1932:
1921:
1902:
1899:
1893:
1878:
1872:
1865:
1856:
1849:
1840:
1826:
1815:
1804:
1798:
1791:
1785:
1767:
1758:
1751:
1742:
1731:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1586:
1585:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1543:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1463:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1371:
1370:
1290:
1289:
1282:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1234:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1214:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1169:
1161:switching losses
1115:
1114:
1107:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1077:
893:Thyristor valves
841:Vancouver Island
798:project linking
784:project between
615:
614:
587:
585:
584:
579:
538:extinction angle
477:
475:
474:
469:
467:
466:
465:
464:
454:
453:
452:
432:
416:
411:
410:
409:
408:
379:
374:
373:
372:
356:
355:
354:
286:
285:
265:six-pulse bridge
261:bridge rectifier
205:gas-filled tubes
119:conversion with
3671:
3670:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3660:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3639:
3605:
3581:Energy security
3571:Electrification
3559:
3513:
3489:Load management
3462:
3433:Demand response
3414:
3392:SuperSmart Grid
3372:
3370:electrical grid
3366:
3336:
3331:
3313:
3297:
3295:
3288:
3219:Capacity factor
3207:
3205:
3198:
3178:Numerical relay
3156:Circuit breaker
3144:
3142:
3135:
3097:
3037:Load management
3007:Electrical grid
2972:Demand response
2965:
2960:
2951:
2932:Microgeneration
2884:
2799:
2747:
2738:
2734:Vehicle-to-grid
2607:
2602:
2561:
2515:
2513:Further reading
2510:
2497:
2493:
2487:Wayback Machine
2474:
2470:
2461:
2457:
2445:
2441:
2432:
2428:
2413:
2392:
2391:
2387:
2374:
2367:
2358:
2356:
2348:
2347:
2340:
2327:
2318:
2305:
2301:
2288:
2284:
2278:Wayback Machine
2265:
2256:
2244:
2240:
2227:
2223:
2210:
2206:
2197:
2193:
2180:
2176:
2172:/TR 62543:2011.
2167:
2163:
2153:Wayback Machine
2144:
2140:
2134:Wayback Machine
2121:
2117:
2107:
2105:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2052:
2043:
2041:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2009:
1996:
1987:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1922:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1879:
1875:
1866:
1859:
1850:
1843:
1837:Wayback Machine
1827:
1818:
1805:
1801:
1792:
1788:
1782:Wayback Machine
1768:
1761:
1752:
1745:
1732:
1725:
1721:
1674:
1662:
1625:
1609:Trans Bay Cable
1566:
1544:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1486:
1464:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1414:
1410:
1358:Trans Bay Cable
1354:
1286:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1248:
1238:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1193:
1163:
1111:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1049:
1001:
987:scheme linking
932:thyristor level
895:
660:
654:
594:
552:
551:
547:
514:
505:
489:
478:
455:
443:
384:
380:
360:
342:
336:
335:
257:
225:line-commutated
221:
184:
158:, usually the
109:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3669:
3667:
3659:
3658:
3648:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3567:
3565:
3564:Related issues
3561:
3560:
3558:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3530:Feed-in tariff
3527:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3484:Load following
3481:
3476:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3438:Dynamic demand
3435:
3430:
3424:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3394:
3389:
3384:
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3367:
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3333:
3332:
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3329:
3318:
3315:
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3311:
3306:
3300:
3298:
3294:Statistics and
3293:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3244:Feed-in tariff
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3210:
3208:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3163:
3153:
3147:
3145:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3132:
3131:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3032:Interconnector
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2982:Dynamic demand
2979:
2974:
2968:
2966:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2912:Combined cycle
2909:
2904:
2898:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2809:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2764:
2762:
2753:
2749:
2748:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2689:Load-following
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2644:Electric power
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2593:
2586:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2567:
2560:
2559:External links
2557:
2556:
2555:
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2527:
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2204:
2191:
2174:
2161:
2138:
2115:
2086:
2077:
2064:
2050:
2025:
2016:
2007:
1985:
1968:
1959:
1942:
1933:
1903:
1894:
1873:
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1264:
1236:
1216:
1192:
1189:
1137:
1136:
1126:
1109:
1088:
1048:
1045:
1037:Multi-terminal
1000:
997:
964:optical fibres
894:
891:
890:
889:
879:
865:
847:
837:
830:
820:
806:
792:
778:
768:
762:MoscowâKashira
758:
670:, 1800 A
656:Main article:
653:
650:
647:
646:
636:
626:
610:valve windings
593:
590:
577:
574:
571:
568:
565:
562:
559:
545:
517:
516:
512:
507:
503:
498:
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458:
451:
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439:
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431:
428:
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401:
398:
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387:
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377:
371:
368:
363:
359:
353:
350:
345:
334:
313:
312:
301:
256:
253:
220:
217:
207:â principally
183:
180:
172:Multi-terminal
108:
105:
25:electric power
21:HVDC converter
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3668:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3622:Energy policy
3620:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3608:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3576:Energy crisis
3574:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
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3523:
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3520:
3516:
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3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
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3490:
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3485:
3482:
3480:
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3475:
3472:
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3469:
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3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3363:
3358:
3356:
3351:
3349:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3328:
3320:
3319:
3316:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3291:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3264:Pigouvian tax
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3201:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3161:Earth-leakage
3159:
3158:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3138:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3102:Failure modes
3100:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3052:Power station
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2937:Rankine cycle
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2917:Cooling tower
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2891:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2760:Non-renewable
2757:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2679:Grid strength
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2634:Demand factor
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2594:
2592:
2587:
2585:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2552:0-471-58408-8
2549:
2545:
2542:
2541:0-333-57351-X
2538:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2524:0-85296-941-4
2521:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2505:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2355:
2351:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2303:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2234:0-333-57351-X
2231:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2217:0-471-58408-8
2214:
2208:
2205:
2201:
2195:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2181:Callavik, M.,
2178:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2142:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2119:
2116:
2103:
2099:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2040:on 2012-12-03
2039:
2035:
2029:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2003:0-85296-941-4
2000:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1981:0-471-58408-8
1978:
1972:
1969:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1955:0-333-57351-X
1952:
1946:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1929:0-85296-941-4
1926:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1890:0-86341-001-4
1887:
1883:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1825:
1823:
1821:
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1779:
1776:
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1760:
1756:
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1736:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1637:
1633:
1631:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1581:
1567:
1561:
1556:
1545:
1539:
1528:
1519:Lower valve:
1517:
1501:
1487:
1481:
1476:
1465:
1459:
1448:
1439:Upper valve:
1437:
1421:
1417:
1405:
1401:
1387:
1383:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1363:
1362:San Francisco
1359:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1334:United States
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1306:
1302:
1296:
1292:
1291:
1288:
1246:
1242:
1241:diode-clamped
1198:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1143:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1038:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1005:
998:
996:
994:
990:
986:
982:
976:
974:
969:
965:
961:
957:
948:
944:
939:
935:
933:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
911:semiconductor
908:
904:
900:
892:
888:
884:
880:
878:
874:
870:
866:
864:
863:United States
860:
856:
852:
848:
846:
842:
838:
835:
831:
829:
825:
821:
819:
815:
812:link between
811:
807:
805:
801:
797:
793:
791:
787:
783:
782:Cross Channel
779:
777:
773:
769:
767:
763:
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
744:
743:
741:
737:
733:
729:
724:
720:
718:
713:
710:
706:
702:
698:
697:
692:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
664:
659:
651:
641:
637:
631:
627:
621:
617:
616:
613:
611:
607:
602:
600:
591:
589:
588:(in degrees)
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
549:
543:
542:turn-off time
539:
529:
525:
522:
511:
508:
502:
499:
496:
493:
486:
483:
482:
481:
456:
444:
440:
437:
433:
426:
420:
417:
412:
385:
381:
375:
361:
357:
343:
333:
326:
322:
320:
306:
302:
297:
292:
288:
287:
284:
282:
281:overlap angle
277:
272:
270:
266:
262:
254:
252:
250:
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
218:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
181:
179:
177:
173:
169:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
106:
104:
102:
98:
94:
93:power station
90:
86:
83:link between
82:
81:Cross-Channel
78:
74:
73:
68:
64:
63:rectification
55:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
30:
26:
22:
3535:Net metering
3259:Net metering
3206:and policies
3124:Power outage
3093:Utility pole
3057:Pumped hydro
2963:distribution
2958:Transmission
2907:Cogeneration
2709:Power factor
2494:
2471:
2458:
2453:publication.
2442:
2429:
2394:
2388:
2357:. Retrieved
2353:
2302:
2285:
2241:
2224:
2207:
2194:
2177:
2164:
2159:publication.
2141:
2118:
2106:. Retrieved
2101:
2080:
2067:
2042:. Retrieved
2038:the original
2028:
2019:
2010:
1971:
1962:
1945:
1936:
1897:
1880:Black, R.M.,
1876:
1810:, V SEPOPE,
1802:
1789:
1665:
1663:
1648:
1644:
1642:
1629:
1626:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1518:
1438:
1436:as follows:
1426:
1403:
1399:
1396:
1365:
1355:
1344:
1338:
1332:link in the
1317:
1315:
1244:
1240:
1196:
1194:
1180:
1177:
1159:
1149:
1060:
1050:
1041:
1036:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1012:
1006:
1002:
977:
967:
956:transformers
952:
931:
896:
748:Elbe Project
725:
721:
717:Soviet Union
714:
694:
688:
609:
606:transformers
603:
598:
595:
550:
541:
537:
534:
518:
509:
500:
484:
479:
331:
318:
316:
280:
275:
273:
268:
264:
258:
248:
245:
228:
224:
222:
185:
171:
164:
143:
135:
133:
110:
95:such as the
76:
70:
66:
62:
60:
29:high voltage
20:
18:
3494:Peak demand
3458:Smart meter
3254:Load factor
3109:Black start
3077:Transformer
2778:Natural gas
2729:Variability
2704:Peak demand
2694:Merit order
2624:Backfeeding
2108:20 December
1828:Peake, O.,
1814:, May 1996.
1649:full bridge
1645:half bridge
1404:half-bridge
1360:project in
1324:project in
1164: [
1152:square wave
993:Netherlands
947:New Zealand
859:Los Angeles
774:project in
764:project in
740:New Zealand
492:transformer
229:commutation
156:transistors
3613:Categories
3509:Power-to-X
3453:Smart grid
3400:Electranet
3296:production
3141:Protective
3072:Super grid
3067:Smart grid
2894:Generation
2828:Geothermal
2719:Repowering
2359:2016-04-17
2044:2012-12-20
1739:0852969414
1719:References
1400:submodules
1322:Murraylink
1181:gate drive
1173:efficiency
1146:state (0).
1069:capacitors
923:capacitors
869:Kingsnorth
810:KontiâSkan
296:thyristors
237:thyristors
213:thyratrons
189:René Thury
168:wind power
152:thyristors
129:electronic
99:scheme in
3443:Negawatts
3377:Proposals
3204:Economics
2927:Micro CHP
2805:Renewable
2788:Petroleum
2783:Oil shale
2669:Grid code
2629:Base load
2187:Amsterdam
1708:Thyristor
1693:Rectifier
1562:−
1326:Australia
1219:, 0 and -
968:high-side
927:resistors
899:thyristor
576:μ
573:−
570:α
567:−
558:γ
434:−
427:α
421:
413:π
309:voltages.
211:but also
125:generator
115:and used
72:rectifier
67:inversion
40:gigawatts
23:converts
3650:Category
3586:Peak oil
3518:Policies
3327:Category
3114:Brownout
2902:AC power
2612:Concepts
2483:Archived
2421:30958783
2274:Archived
2149:Archived
2130:Archived
1833:Archived
1778:Archived
1672:See also
1653:H bridge
1623:Variants
1411:(where U
1328:and the
1065:reactors
1053:Hellsjön
1021:smoothed
1017:inverter
871:link in
843:link in
705:Uno Lamm
696:arc-back
680:Manitoba
668:kilovolt
162:(IGBT).
140:switches
77:inverter
34:(AC) to
3626:Portals
3143:devices
2853:Thermal
2848:Osmotic
2843:Current
2823:Biomass
2813:Biofuel
2795:Nuclear
2752:Sources
2554:, 1995.
2543:, 1992.
2526:, 1998.
2451:Siemens
2280:, 2005.
2252:, 2011.
2189:, 2011.
2157:Siemens
2136:, 1987.
1364:, the
1281:
1269:
1261:
1249:
1233:
1221:
1213:
1201:
1106:
1094:
1085:
1073:
991:to the
966:to the
960:optical
877:England
861:in the
818:Denmark
804:Ukraine
786:England
772:Gotland
756:Germany
674:in the
521:voltage
480:Where:
276:overlap
85:England
3630:Energy
2838:Marine
2818:Biogas
2550:
2539:
2522:
2419:
2409:
2232:
2215:
2104:. IEEE
2001:
1979:
1953:
1927:
1892:, p 95
1888:
1812:Recife
1737:
1666:hybrid
1613:France
1345:flying
1057:Sweden
989:Norway
985:NorNed
907:Canada
887:Canada
873:London
855:Oregon
845:Canada
824:Sakuma
814:Sweden
800:Russia
790:France
776:Sweden
766:Russia
752:Berlin
732:Canada
703:by Dr
701:Sweden
684:Canada
666:A 150-
488:LLpeak
233:diodes
197:France
101:Brazil
97:Itaipu
89:France
3195:(GFI)
3084:(TSO)
2870:Solar
2858:Tidal
2833:Hydro
2500:CIGRĂ
2477:CIGRĂ
2464:CIGRĂ
2417:S2CID
2377:CIGRĂ
2330:CIGRĂ
2308:CIGRĂ
2291:CIGRĂ
2268:CIGRĂ
2247:CIGRĂ
2124:CIGRĂ
2073:CIGRĂ
1853:CIGRĂ
1771:CIGRĂ
1617:Spain
1168:]
981:China
915:diode
853:from
828:Japan
319:notch
269:valve
121:motor
44:volts
27:from
2961:and
2880:Wind
2863:Wave
2773:Coal
2548:ISBN
2537:ISBN
2520:ISBN
2407:ISBN
2230:ISBN
2213:ISBN
2110:2012
1999:ISBN
1977:ISBN
1951:ISBN
1925:ISBN
1886:ISBN
1869:IEEE
1735:ISBN
1243:(or
1027:(or
925:and
897:The
867:The
836:link
822:The
816:and
802:and
794:The
788:and
760:The
746:The
709:IEEE
201:Lyon
87:and
3396:USA
2435:IET
2399:doi
2200:IEC
2170:IEC
1795:GEC
1755:IET
1615:to
905:in
885:in
857:to
750:in
730:in
678:in
564:180
418:cos
263:or
195:in
19:An
3652::
3383:EU
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2415:.
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2257:^
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2100:.
2089:^
2053:^
1988:^
1906:^
1860:^
1844:^
1819:^
1762:^
1746:^
1726:^
1434:ac
1413:sm
1409:sm
1187:.
1166:de
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352:c
349:d
344:V
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