Particulate inorganic carbon

2062: 2288: 855: 869: 1274: 2202: 1369: 2297: 111: 2046:(at approximately 10 °C) acts as the northern boundary of the GCB and is associated with a sharp increase in PIC southwards. These fronts divide distinct environmental and biogeochemical zones, making the GCB an ideal study area to examine controls on phytoplankton communities in the open ocean. A high PIC concentration observed in the GCB (1 μmol PIC L) compared to the global average (0.2 μmol PIC L) and significant quantities of detached 2070: 1008: 2275: 1852: 688: 846: 1201: 5871: 5802: 3743: 2663: 2602: 1112:, a nearly ubiquitous group of phytoplankton that produce shells of calcium carbonate, are the dominant contributors to the carbonate pump. Due to their abundance, coccolithophores have significant implications on carbonate chemistry, in the surface waters they inhabit and in the ocean below: they provide a large mechanism for the downward transport of CaCO 19: 1325: 1925:) alongside the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. Knowledge of the impact of interacting environmental influences on phytoplankton distribution in the Southern Ocean is limited. For example, more understanding is needed of how light and iron availability or temperature and pH interact to control phytoplankton 990:

levels if not counterbalanced by the new input of alkalinity from weathering. The portion of carbon that is permanently buried at the sea floor becomes part of the geologic record. Calcium carbonate often forms remarkable deposits that can then be raised onto land through tectonic motion as in the

1307:

disturbance. The phenomenon gets its name from the white, chalky color it imbues to the water. These events have been shown to occur in temperate waters as well as tropical ones, and they can span for hundreds of meters. They can also occur in both marine and freshwater environments. The origin of

863:

Natural particle size distributions in the ocean broadly follow a power law over many orders of magnitude, from viruses and bacteria to fish and whales. Non-living material contained in the particle size distribution may also include marine snow, detritus, sediment and microplastic. The power law

2259: 3914:

Balch, W. M.; Drapeau, D. T.; Bowler, B. C.; Lyczskowski, E.; Booth, E. S.; Alley, D. (2011). "The contribution of coccolithophores to the optical and inorganic carbon budgets during the Southern Ocean Gas Exchange Experiment: New evidence in support of the "Great Calcite Belt" hypothesis".

4745:

Assmy, P.; Smetacek, V.; Montresor, M.; Klaas, C.; Henjes, J.; Strass, V. H.; Arrieta, J. M.; Bathmann, U.; Berg, G. M.; Breitbarth, E.; Cisewski, B.; Friedrichs, L.; Fuchs, N.; Herndl, G. J.; Jansen, S.; Kragefsky, S.; Latasa, M.; Peeken, I.; Rottgers, R.; Scharek, R.; Schuller, S. E.;

1908:

predominance. The overlap of two major phytoplankton groups, coccolithophores and diatoms, in the dynamic frontal systems characteristic of this region provides an ideal setting to study environmental influences on the distribution of different species within these taxonomic groups.

898:), and plays a key part in the ocean carbon cycle. This biologically fixed carbon is used as a protective coating for many planktonic species (coccolithophores, foraminifera) as well as larger marine organisms (mollusk shells). Calcium carbonate is also excreted at high rates during 864:

particle size distribution is the sum of log-normal distributions for each sub-population, four examples of which are illustrated in this figure. N is the number of particles of diameter, D; K is the number of 1 μm particles per volume; J is the slope of the power-law distribution.

5698:

Iglesias-Rodriguez, M. D.; Halloran, P. R.; Rickaby, R. E. M.; Hall, I. R.; Colmenero-Hidalgo, E.; Gittins, J. R.; Green, D. R. H.; Tyrrell, T.; Gibbs, S. J.; von Dassow, P.; Rehm, E.; Armbrust, E. V.; Boessenkool, K. P. (2008). "Phytoplankton Calcification in a High-CO2 World".

5613:

Beaufort, L.; Probert, I.; De Garidel-Thoron, T.; Bendif, E. M.; Ruiz-Pino, D.; Metzl, N.; Goyet, C.; Buchet, N.; Coupel, P.; Grelaud, M.; Rost, B.; Rickaby, R. E. M.; De Vargas, C. (2011). "Sensitivity of coccolithophores to carbonate chemistry and ocean acidification".

5381:

Monteiro, Fanny M.; Bach, Lennart T.; Brownlee, Colin; Bown, Paul; Rickaby, Rosalind E. M.; Poulton, Alex J.; Tyrrell, Toby; Beaufort, Luc; Dutkiewicz, Stephanie; Gibbs, Samantha; Gutowska, Magdalena A.; Lee, Renee; Riebesell, Ulf; Young, Jeremy; Ridgwell, Andy (2016).

2026:, and light microscopy restricts accurate identification to cells > 10 μm. In the context of climate change and future ecosystem function, the distribution of biomineralizing phytoplankton is important to define when considering phytoplankton interactions with 4573:

Hinz, D.J.; Poulton, A.J.; Nielsdóttir, M.C.; Steigenberger, S.; Korb, R.E.; Achterberg, E.P.; Bibby, T.S. (2012). "Comparative seasonal biogeography of mineralising nannoplankton in the Scotia Sea: Emiliania huxleyi, Fragilariopsis SPP. And Tetraparma pelagica".

849:

Carbon is separated into four distinct pools based on whether it is organic/inorganic and whether it is dissolved/particulate. The processes associated with each arrow describe the transformation associated with the transfer of carbon from one reservoir to

1308:

whiting events is debated among the scientific community, and it is unclear if there is a single, specific cause. Generally, they are thought to result from either bottom sediment re-suspension or by increased activity of certain microscopic life such as

2107: 1264:

Likewise, the occurrence of calcite seas is controlled by the same suite of factors controlling aragonite seas, with the most obvious being a low seawater Mg/Ca ratio (Mg/Ca < 2), which occurs during intervals of rapid seafloor spreading.

1920:

spring and summer in the Southern Ocean, plays an important role in climate fluctuations, accounting for over 60% of the Southern Ocean area (30–60° S). The region between 30° and 50° S has the highest uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide

2291:

Present-day annual mean surface omega calcite: the normalised saturation state of calcite. Areas with a value less an 1 indicate a likeliness for dissolution (undersaturated) while a value over 1 indicates areas less likely for dissolution

2018:. Currently, few studies incorporate small biomineralizing phytoplankton to species level. Rather, the focus has often been on the larger and noncalcifying species in the Southern Ocean due to sample preservation issues (i.e., acidified 1328: 1332: 1331: 1327: 1326: 1124:

can be determined by the rain ratio - the proportion of carbon from calcium carbonate compared to that from organic carbon in particulate matter sinking to the ocean floor, (PIC/POC). The carbonate pump acts as a negative feedback on

1333: 5251:

Armstrong, Robert A.; Lee, Cindy; Hedges, John I.; Honjo, Susumu; Wakeham, Stuart G. (2001). "A new, mechanistic model for organic carbon fluxes in the ocean based on the quantitative association of POC with ballast minerals".

4992:

Painter, Stuart C.; Poulton, Alex J.; Allen, John T.; Pidcock, Rosalind; Balch, William M. (2010). "The COPAS'08 expedition to the Patagonian Shelf: Physical and environmental conditions during the 2008 coccolithophore bloom".

4323:

Balch, William M.; Bates, Nicholas R.; Lam, Phoebe J.; Twining, Benjamin S.; Rosengard, Sarah Z.; Bowler, Bruce C.; Drapeau, Dave T.; Garley, Rebecca; Lubelczyk, Laura C.; Mitchell, Catherine; Rauschenberg, Sara (2016).

1962:

plankton and their export need to be acknowledged. The two dominant biomineralizing phytoplankton groups in the GCB are coccolithophores and diatoms. Coccolithophores are generally found north of the polar front, though

772:

Marine carbon is further separated into particulate and dissolved phases. These pools are operationally defined by physical separation – dissolved carbon passes through a 0.2 μm filter, and particulate carbon does not.

1330: 5442:

Schlüter, Lothar; Lohbeck, Kai T.; Gutowska, Magdalena A.; Gröger, Joachim P.; Riebesell, Ulf; Reusch, Thorsten B. H. (2014). "Adaptation of a globally important coccolithophore to ocean warming and acidification".

732:

Carbon compounds can be distinguished as either organic or inorganic, and dissolved or particulate, depending on their composition. Organic carbon forms the backbone of key component of organic compounds such as –

4241:

Poulton, Alex J.; Mark Moore, C.; Seeyave, Sophie; Lucas, Mike I.; Fielding, Sophie; Ward, Peter (2007). "Phytoplankton community composition around the Crozet Plateau, with emphasis on diatoms and Phaeocystis".

2037:

The Great Calcite Belt spans the major Southern Ocean circumpolar fronts: the Subantarctic front, the polar front, the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current front, and occasionally the southern boundary of the

2856:"Carbon dioxide effects of Antarctic stratification, North Atlantic Intermediate Water formation, and subantarctic nutrient drawdown during the last ice age: Diagnosis and synthesis in a geochemical box model" 5028:

Sabine, C. L.; Feely, R. A.; Gruber, N.; Key, R. M.; Lee, K.; Bullister, J. L.; Wanninkhof, R.; Wong, C. S.; Wallace, D. W.; Tilbrook, B.; Millero, F. J.; Peng, T. H.; Kozyr, A.; Ono, T.; Rios, A. F. (2004).

3950:

4424:

Mohan, Rahul; Mergulhao, Lina P.; Guptha, M.V.S.; Rajakumar, A.; Thamban, M.; Anilkumar, N.; Sudhakar, M.; Ravindra, Rasik (2008). "Ecology of coccolithophores in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean".

5928:

Hardie, Lawrence A (1996), "Secular variation in seawater chemistry: An explanation for the coupled secular variation in the mineralogies of marine limestones and potash evaporites over the past 600 my",

5478:

Paasche, E. (2001). "A review of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae), with particular reference to growth, coccolith formation, and calcification-photosynthesis interactions".

4460:

Holligan, P.M.; Charalampopoulou, A.; Hutson, R. (2010). "Seasonal distributions of the coccolithophore, Emiliania huxleyi, and of particulate inorganic carbon in surface waters of the Scotia Sea".

808:(i.e. primary production). DIC increases with depth as organic carbon particles sink and are respired. Free oxygen decreases as DIC increases because oxygen is consumed during aerobic respiration. 4854:

Tsuchiya, Mizuki; Talley, Lynne D.; McCartney, Michael S. (1994). "Water-mass distributions in the western South Atlantic; A section from South Georgia Island (54S) northward across the equator".

4655:

Tortell, Philippe D.; Payne, Christopher D.; Li, Yingyu; Trimborn, Scarlett; Rost, Björn; Smith, Walker O.; Riesselman, Christina; Dunbar, Robert B.; Sedwick, Pete; Ditullio, Giacomo R. (2008).

1929:. Hence, if model parameterizations are to improve to provide accurate predictions of biogeochemical change, a multivariate understanding of the full suite of environmental drivers is required. 3709:

Smith, Helen E. K.; Poulton, Alex J.; Garley, Rebecca; Hopkins, Jason; Lubelczyk, Laura C.; Drapeau, Dave T.; Rauschenberg, Sara; Twining, Ben S.; Bates, Nicholas R.; Balch, William M. (2017).

2420:

Gordon, Howard R.; Boynton, G. Chris; Balch, William M.; Groom, Stephen B.; Harbour, Derek S.; Smyth, Tim J. (2001). "Retrieval of coccolithophore calcite concentration from SeaWiFS Imagery".

1231:

in which seawater low in magnesium content relative to calcium (low Mg/Ca ratio) favors the formation of low-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate.

1140:, produce hard structures out of calcium carbonate, a form of particulate inorganic carbon, by fixing bicarbonate. This fixation of DIC is an important part of the oceanic carbon cycle. 3849:

Sarmiento, J. L.; Slater, R.; Barber, R.; Bopp, L.; Doney, S. C.; Hirst, A. C.; Kleypas, J.; Matear, R.; Mikolajewicz, U.; Monfray, P.; Soldatov, V.; Spall, S. A.; Stouffer, R. (2004).

842:). The marine carbon cycle also affects the reaction and dissolution rates of some chemical compounds, regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and Earth's temperature. 4541:

Froneman, P.W.; McQuaid, C.D.; Perissinotto, R. (1995). "Biogeographic structure of the microphytoplankton assemblages of the south Atlantic and Southern Ocean during austral summer".

2721:

Wilson, R. W.; Millero, F. J.; Taylor, J. R.; Walsh, P. J.; Christensen, V.; Jennings, S.; Grosell, M. (16 January 2009). "Contribution of Fish to the Marine Inorganic Carbon Cycle".

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Wilson, R. W.; Millero, F. J.; Taylor, J. R.; Walsh, P. J.; Christensen, V.; Jennings, S.; Grosell, M. (16 January 2009). "Contribution of Fish to the Marine Inorganic Carbon Cycle".

2065:

Potential seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt, allowing coccolithophores to develop after the main diatom bloom. Note phytoplankton images are not to scale.

6082:

Wilkinson, B.H.; Given, K.R. (1986). "Secular variation in abiotic marine carbonates: constraints on Phanerozoic atmospheric carbon dioxide contents and oceanic Mg/Ca ratios".

1835: 3806:

Sarmiento, Jorge L.; Hughes, Tertia M. C.; Stouffer, Ronald J.; Manabe, Syukuro (1998). "Simulated response of the ocean carbon cycle to anthropogenic climate warming".

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Lowenstein, T.K.; Timofeeff, M.N.; Brennan, S.T.; Hardie, L.A.; Demicco, R.V. (2001), "Oscillations in Phanerozoic seawater chemistry: evidence from fluid inclusions",

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Feely, R. A.; Sabine, C. L.; Lee, K.; Berelson, W.; Kleypas, J.; Fabry, V. J.; Millero, F. J. (2004). "Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans".

3653:

Effler, Steven W.; Perkins, Mary Gail; Greer, Harry; Johnson, David L. (1987). "Effect of "whiting" on optical properties and turbidity in Owasco Lake, New York".

6119:

Wilkinson, B.H.; Owen, R.M.; Carroll, A.R. (1985). "Submarine hydrothermal weathering, global eustacy, and carbonate polymorphism in Phanerozoic marine oolites".

1329: 1022:, sometimes called the carbonate counter pump, starts with marine organisms at the ocean's surface producing particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) in the form of 906:. While this form of carbon is not directly taken from the atmospheric budget, it is formed from dissolved forms of carbonate which are in equilibrium with CO 1249:

Aragonite seas occur due to several factors, the most obvious of these is a high seawater Mg/Ca ratio (Mg/Ca > 2), which occurs during intervals of slow

4156:

Boyd, P.W.; Newton, P.P. (1999). "Does planktonic community structure determine downward particulate organic carbon flux in different oceanic provinces?".

3218:"Geological and experimental evidence for secular variation in seawater Mg/Ca (calcite-aragonite seas) and its effects on marine biological calcification" 4805:

Poulton, Alex J.; Painter, Stuart C.; Young, Jeremy R.; Bates, Nicholas R.; Bowler, Bruce; Drapeau, Dave; Lyczsckowski, Emily; Balch, William M. (2013).

1883: 198: 483: 156: 55:, it is defined as the inorganic carbon in particulate form that is too large to pass through the filter used to separate dissolved inorganic carbon. 5957:

Hardie, Lawrence A. (2003), "Secular variations in Precambrian seawater chemistry and the timing of Precambrian aragonite seas and calcite seas",

2682:"Estimating Particulate Inorganic Carbon Concentrations of the Global Ocean from Ocean Color Measurements Using a Reflectance Difference Approach" 656: 183: 4497:"Calcification morphotypes of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi in the Southern Ocean: Changes in 2001 to 2006 compared to historical data" 3371:"Whiting events and the formation of aragonite in Mediterranean Karstic Marine Lakes: new evidence on its biologically induced inorganic origin" 1955: 719: 537: 5597: 3115: 2536: 2135:. As a result, there has been profound interest in these calcifying algae, boosted by their major role in the global carbon cycle. Globally, 1188:. In this way, the carbonate pump could be termed the carbonate counter pump. It works counter to the biological pump by counteracting the CO 661: 4881:

Orsi, Alejandro H.; Whitworth, Thomas; Nowlin, Worth D. (1995). "On the meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current".

5523:"Effect of Type and Concentration of Ballasting Particles on Sinking Rate of Marine Snow Produced by the Appendicularian Oikopleura dioica" 2073:

Four phytoplankton species identified as characterizing the significantly different community structures along the Great Calcite Belt: (a)

2782: 2894:

Sigman DM & GH Haug. 2006. The biological pump in the past. In: Treatise on Geochemistry; vol. 6, (ed.). Pergamon Press, pp. 491-528

126: 5287:

Bach, Lennart T.; MacKinder, Luke C. M.; Schulz, Kai G.; Wheeler, Glen; Schroeder, Declan C.; Brownlee, Colin; Riebesell, Ulf (2013).

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Signorini, Sergio R.; Garcia, Virginia M. T.; Piola, Alberto R.; Garcia, Carlos A. E.; Mata, Mauricio M.; McClain, Charles R. (2006).

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Palmer, T.J.; Wilson, M.A. (2004). "Calcite precipitation and dissolution of biogenic aragonite in shallow Ordovician calcite seas".

5289:"Dissecting the impact of CO 2 and pH on the mechanisms of photosynthesis and calcification in the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi" 4748:"Thick-shelled, grazer-protected diatoms decouple ocean carbon and silicon cycles in the iron-limited Antarctic Circumpolar Current" 3087: 3050: 2803: 2189:. In short, the PIC:POC ratio is a key characteristic required to understand and predict the impact of climate change on the global 2061: 5342:"Particulate inorganic to organic carbon production as a predictor for coccolithophorid sensitivity to ongoing ocean acidification" 4105:

Charalampopoulou, Anastasia; Poulton, Alex J.; Bakker, Dorothee C. E.; Lucas, Mike I.; Stinchcombe, Mark C.; Tyrrell, Toby (2016).

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which enhances the organic and inorganic carbon flux to the deep sea. Organic carbon is formed by means of photosynthesis, where CO

1912:

The Great Calcite Belt, defined as an elevated particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) feature occurring alongside seasonally elevated

6154: 1258: 4196:"Spring development of phytoplankton biomass and composition in major water masses of the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean" 749:. Inorganic carbon is found primarily in simple compounds such as carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate (CO 3605:

Shinn, Eugene A.; St.C. Kendall, Christopher G. (1 December 2011). Day-Stirrat, Ruarri; Janson, Xavier; Wright, Wayne (eds.).

6149: 1876: 4656: 868: 4605:

Langer, Gerald; Geisen, Markus; Baumann, Karl-Heinz; Kläs, Jessica; Riebesell, Ulf; Thoms, Silke; Young, Jeremy R. (2006).

2287: 854: 3711:"The influence of environmental variability on the biogeography of coccolithophores and diatoms in the Great Calcite Belt" 2341: 2129: 2039: 2006:) are generally more abundant south of the polar front. High abundances of nanoplankton (coccolithophores, small diatoms, 1739: 2058: across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans and completing Antarctic circumnavigation via the Drake Passage. 1368: 1223:

as the primary inorganic calcium carbonate precipitates. The chemical conditions of the seawater must be notably high in

586: 3767:"Calcium carbonate measurements in the surface global ocean based on Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer data" 2381:"Calcium carbonate measurements in the surface global ocean based on Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer data" 2321: 2316: 2302: 1779: 877: 804:(biologically or abiotically). DIC can also be converted to particulate organic carbon (POC) through photosynthesis and 591: 576: 5190:

Riebesell, Ulf; Zondervan, Ingrid; Rost, Björn; Tortell, Philippe D.; Zeebe, Richard E.; Morel, François M. M. (2000).

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Capelle, David W.; Kuzyk, Zou Zou A.; Papakyriakou, Tim; Guéguen, Céline; Miller, Lisa A.; MacDonald, Robie W. (2020).

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All scale bars are 2 μm except in d) where it is 1 μm and f) where it is 10 μm. Samples were collected at 5 m depth in

2002: 1468: 5752:"Coccolithophore calcification studied by single-cell impedance cytometry: Towards single-cell PIC:POC measurements" 5580:

Rost, Björn; Riebesell, Ulf (2004). "Coccolithophores and the biological pump: Responses to environmental changes".

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Cubillos, JC; Wright, SW; Nash, G.; De Salas, MF; Griffiths, B.; Tilbrook, B.; Poisson, A.; Hallegraeff, GM (2007).

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Rost, Björn; Riebesell, Ulf (2004). "Coccolithophores and the biological pump: Responses to environmental changes".

2258: 2182: 2050:

coccoliths (in concentrations > 20,000 coccoliths mL) both characterize the GCB. The GCB is clearly observed in

1830: 1437: 1169: 646: 544: 250: 244: 36: 18: 2908: 1984:

marking a strong divide between different size fractions. North of the polar front, small diatom species, such as

970:

gradient which serves to raise the pH of surface waters, shifting the speciation of dissolved carbon to raise the

4807:"The 2008Emiliania huxleyibloom along the Patagonian Shelf: Ecology, biogeochemistry, and cellular calcification" 3426:

Long, Jacqueline S.; Hu, Chuanmin; Robbins, Lisa L.; Byrne, Robert H.; Paul, John H.; Wolny, Jennifer L. (2017).

1869: 1794: 811:

Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) is the other form of inorganic carbon found in the ocean. Most PIC is the CaCO

651: 271: 5950: 1273: 712: 5750:

De Bruijn, Douwe S.; Ter Braak, Paul M.; Van De Waal, Dedmer B.; Olthuis, Wouter; Van Den Berg, Albert (2021).

4385:"A rising tide lifts all phytoplankton: Growth response of other phytoplankton taxa in diatom-dominated blooms" 626: 554: 549: 532: 377: 238: 136: 5778: 4704:

Baines, Stephen B.; Twining, Benjamin S.; Brzezinski, Mark A.; Nelson, David M.; Fisher, Nicholas S. (2010).

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Belkin, Igor M.; Gordon, Arnold L. (1996). "Southern Ocean fronts from the Greenwich meridian to Tasmania".

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Boyd, Philip W. (2002). "Environmental Factors Controlling Phytoplankton Processes in the Southern Ocean1".

4107:"Environmental drivers of coccolithophore abundance and calcification across Drake Passage (Southern Ocean)" 1815: 1784: 1461: 636: 151: 4953:"Seasonal and interannual variability of calcite in the vicinity of the Patagonian shelf break (38°S–52°S)" 2201: 3546:

Dittrich, Maria; Obst, Martin (2004). "Are Picoplankton Responsible for Calcite Precipitation in Lakes?".

3028: 2274: 2218:

B) and D) Particles similar to the Ca carbonates described to precipitate on the cell surface of cultured

1789: 1662: 1012: 777: 456: 232: 193: 161: 52: 3315:

Larson, Erik B.; Mylroie, John E. (2014). "A review of whiting formation in the Bahamas and new models".

2031: 1242:

oceans were predominantly calcite seas, whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the

1129:

taken into the ocean by the solubility pump. It occurs with lesser magnitude than the solubility pump.

992: 705: 692: 641: 372: 44: 2019: 3850: 3638:

Yates, K.K; Robbins, L.L. (2001). "Microbial Lime-Mud Production and Its Relation to Climate Change".

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content relative to calcium (high Mg/Ca ratio) for an aragonite sea to form. This is in contrast to a

6091: 6062: 5994: 5966: 5938: 5901: 5832: 5708: 5534: 5487: 5452: 5395: 5353: 5261: 5206: 5162: 5107: 5045: 5002: 4964: 4925: 4890: 4818: 4759: 4717: 4668: 4621: 4579: 4508: 4469: 4434: 4396: 4337: 4326:"Factors regulating the Great Calcite Belt in the Southern Ocean and its biogeochemical significance" 4289: 4251: 4210: 4165: 4118: 4074: 4033: 3967: 3924: 3865: 3815: 3778: 3722: 3662: 3555: 3488: 3439: 3382: 3324: 3229: 2987: 2867: 2730: 2693: 2632: 2565: 2472: 2429: 2392: 2210: 1719: 1483: 1257:, temperature, and calcium carbonate saturation state of the surrounding system also determine which 568: 470: 226: 131: 4706:"Causes and biogeochemical implications of regional differences in silicification of marine diatoms" 3033: 2224:

E) and F) Particles with one flat surface suggesting that they are formed on a surface or interface.

3477:"Whiting events: Biogenic origin due to the photosynthetic activity of cyanobacterial picoplankton" 2178: 2125: 2027: 1937: 1803: 1724: 1642: 1121: 517: 333: 188: 6107: 6018: 5917: 5791: 5732: 5639: 5503: 5319: 5230: 5131: 5077: 4836: 4686: 4637: 4365: 4305: 3999: 3891: 3831: 3587: 3514: 3408: 3348: 2924: 2828: 2754: 2621:"Effect of terrestrial organic matter on ocean acidification and CO2 flux in an Arctic shelf sea" 2504: 2445: 2190: 1946:

sp. However, since the identification of the GCB as a consistent feature and the recognition of

1808: 1744: 1626: 1578: 1567: 1562: 1347: 1250: 596: 364: 348: 343: 266: 6132: 2925:"The calcium carbonate counter pump: Fundamentals, evolution through time, and future feedbacks" 5819:

Heldal, Mikal; Norland, Svein; Erichsen, Egil S.; Thingstad, T. Frede; Bratbak, Gunnar (2012).

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Thompson, Joel B.; Schultze-Lam, Susanne; Beveridge, Terrance J.; Des Marais, David J. (1997).

2809: 2296: 6010: 5860: 5783: 5724: 5680: 5631: 5593: 5562: 5421: 5311: 5222: 5151:"Reviews and Syntheses: Responses of coccolithophores to ocean acidification: A meta-analysis" 5123: 5069: 4787: 3991: 3678: 3579: 3571: 3506: 3457: 3400: 3340: 3111: 3083: 3046: 3005: 2799: 2771:

Pilson MEQ. 2012. An Introduction to the Chemistry of the Sea. Cambridge University Press, pp.

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from the seawater. Counterintuitively, the production of coccoliths leads to the release of CO

2141: 2112: 2075: 2051: 2043: 1965: 1959: 1856: 1749: 1530: 1456: 1292: 1023: 891: 875:

Black arrows represent DIC produced by PIC dissolution. Grey lines represent terrestrial PIC.

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snowline: the depth at which carbonate disappear from sediments under steady-state conditions

6128: 6099: 6070: 6038: 6002: 5974: 5946: 5909: 5850: 5840: 5773: 5763: 5716: 5670: 5623: 5585: 5552: 5542: 5495: 5460: 5411: 5403: 5361: 5303: 5269: 5214: 5170: 5115: 5061: 5053: 5010: 4972: 4933: 4898: 4863: 4826: 4777: 4767: 4725: 4676: 4629: 4587: 4550: 4516: 4477: 4442: 4404: 4355: 4345: 4297: 4259: 4218: 4173: 4136: 4126: 4082: 4041: 3983: 3975: 3932: 3881: 3873: 3823: 3786: 3730: 3670: 3618: 3563: 3496: 3447: 3390: 3332: 3277: 3237: 3075: 3038: 2995: 2875: 2791: 2738: 2701: 2650: 2640: 2581: 2573: 2480: 2437: 2400: 2158: 2093: 2069: 2055: 2011: 1986: 1451: 1410: 978:

in surface waters, which actually raises atmospheric levels. In addition, the burial of CaCO

971: 800:). DIC can be converted to particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) through precipitation of CaCO 493: 387: 382: 40: 4301: 2949: 1261:

of calcium carbonate (aragonite, low-magnesium calcite, high-magnesium calcite) will form.

1007: 110: 3298: 2840: 2331: 2265: 2219: 2136: 1901: 1774: 1672: 1631: 1621: 1514: 1137: 1133: 1109: 996: 621: 488: 421: 409: 338: 212: 75: 4607:"Species-specific responses of calcifying algae to changing seawater carbonate chemistry" 3532: 6095: 6066: 5998: 5970: 5942: 5905: 5836: 5712: 5538: 5491: 5456: 5399: 5357: 5265: 5210: 5166: 5111: 5049: 5006: 4968: 4929: 4894: 4822: 4763: 4721: 4672: 4625: 4583: 4512: 4473: 4438: 4400: 4341: 4293: 4255: 4214: 4169: 4122: 4078: 4063:"Mapping phytoplankton iron utilization: Insights into Southern Ocean supply mechanisms" 4037: 3971: 3928: 3869: 3819: 3782: 3726: 3666: 3559: 3492: 3443: 3386: 3328: 3233: 2991: 2871: 2734: 2697: 2636: 2569: 2476: 2433: 2396: 962:

are sequestered for every unit of sequestered carbon. The formation and sinking of CaCO

5855: 5820: 5557: 5522: 5416: 5383: 4782: 4747: 3674: 3079: 2795: 2586: 2553: 2336: 2087: 2081: 1897: 1734: 1714: 1682: 1587: 1519: 1415: 1339: 1300: 1019: 899: 820: 631: 601: 581: 522: 436: 319: 314: 175: 83: 6042: 5273: 4222: 4177: 6159: 6143: 6111: 6059: 5921: 5795: 5736: 4902: 4840: 4606: 3765:

Balch, W. M.; Gordon, Howard R.; Bowler, B. C.; Drapeau, D. T.; Booth, E. S. (2005).

3412: 3395: 3370: 3352: 2449: 2379:

Balch, W. M.; Gordon, Howard R.; Bowler, B. C.; Drapeau, D. T.; Booth, E. S. (2005).

2280: 2251: 1992: 1974: 1933: 1913: 1687: 1541: 1473: 1386: 1309: 1296: 1288: 1282: 1212: 1205: 903: 816: 79: 5507: 5191: 5135: 4690: 4641: 4369: 4309: 3895: 3591: 2758: 2508: 2305:

and how the light, density, temperature and salinity gradients vary with water depth

6022: 5643: 5323: 5234: 5192:"Reduced calcification of marine plankton in response to increased atmospheric CO2" 5081: 4446: 4195: 4003: 3835: 2241: 2227: 1997: 1951: 1947: 1926: 1729: 1677: 1667: 1607: 1503: 1478: 1405: 1400: 1313: 995:

in Southern England. These cliffs are made almost entirely of the plates of buried

845: 746: 742: 414: 328: 282: 220: 102: 5499: 5030: 4481: 3952: 3518: 2173:

in the seawater, due to removal of carbonate from the seawater, which reduces the

1900:

is a region of elevated summertime upper ocean calcite concentration derived from

1316:, studying the mechanisms behind them holds scientific relevance in various ways. 1132:

The carbonate pump is sometimes referred to as the "hard tissue" component of the

5845: 5547: 5288: 4022:"Environmental control of open-ocean phytoplankton groups: Now and in the future" 2645: 2620: 5589: 3281: 3042: 2150: 2146: 2106: 2007: 1981: 1942: 1917: 1825: 1820: 1769: 1709: 1701: 1612: 1391: 1228: 1184:), the carbonate pump fixes inorganic bicarbonate and causes a net release of CO 827: 478: 451: 446: 441: 431: 401: 287: 146: 6029:

Morse, J.W.; Mackenzie, F.T. (1990). "Geochemistry of sedimentary carbonates".

5892:

Adabi, Mohammad H. (2004), "A re-evaluation of aragonite versus calcite seas",

5875: 5806: 5768: 5751: 4591: 4554: 4263: 3747: 3567: 3452: 3427: 3066:

Hain, M.P.; Sigman, D.M.; Haug, G.H (2014). "The Biological Pump in the Past".

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Bathmann, U.V.; Scharek, R.; Klaas, C.; Dubischar, C.D.; Smetacek, V. (1997).

4046: 4021: 3501: 3476: 3336: 3000: 2975: 2174: 2015: 1970: 1535: 1446: 983: 967: 959: 835: 805: 426: 4867: 3682: 3575: 3461: 3404: 3344: 3009: 2492: 2363: 958:

While this process does manage to fix a large amount of carbon, two units of

6006: 5720: 5175: 5150: 5119: 5057: 4772: 4131: 4106: 3979: 3735: 3710: 3642:. Tulsa, Ok: American Association of Petroleum Geologists. pp. 267–283. 3623: 3606: 3108:

Coccolithophores and the biological pump: responses to environmental changes

2742: 2484: 2326: 2154: 1312:. Because whiting events affect aquatic chemistry, physical properties, and 1254: 1235: 1224: 1216: 1031: 831: 71: 6014: 5864: 5787: 5728: 5684: 5635: 5566: 5425: 5407: 5315: 5226: 5127: 5073: 4791: 3995: 3583: 3510: 3242: 3217: 2750: 2595: 2500: 776:

There are two main types of inorganic carbon that are found in the oceans.

4020:

Boyd, Philip W.; Strzepek, Robert; Fu, Feixue; Hutchins, David A. (2010).

5464: 4977: 4952: 4831: 4806: 4730: 4705: 4681: 4633: 4409: 4384: 4350: 4325: 4087: 4062: 3936: 3877: 3791: 3766: 3428:"Optical and biochemical properties of a southwest Florida whiting event" 2880: 2855: 2706: 2681: 2441: 2405: 2380: 1551: 1429: 1378: 1360: 1304: 1243: 1239: 1043: 5627: 5913: 5870: 5801: 5366: 5341: 5065: 4141: 3987: 3742: 2662: 2601: 2023: 1220: 1027: 815:

that makes up shells of various marine organisms, but can also form in

734: 509: 292: 67: 5335: 5333: 5307: 5246: 5244: 4937: 4521: 4496: 2655: 2216:

A) and B) Particles resembling bacteria and microcolonies of bacteria.

2181:. Therefore, the ratio between particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) and 1996:

spp., tend to dominate numerically, whereas large diatoms with higher

838:, a natural ocean buffer that prevents drastic changes in acidity (or 5978: 5437: 5435: 5218: 5093: 5091: 4360: 3886: 1905: 1546: 1508: 671: 5675: 5658: 4061:

Boyd, P. W.; Arrigo, K. R.; Strzepek, R.; Van Dijken, G. L. (2012).

2680:

Mitchell, C.; Hu, C.; Bowler, B.; Drapeau, D.; Balch, W. M. (2017).

2165:

is fixed and converted into organic molecules, causing removal of CO

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is a phenomenon that occurs when a suspended cloud of fine-grained

23:

Satellite imagery of particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) – NASA 2014

3827: 2295: 2286: 2200: 2105: 2068: 2060: 1323: 1277:

Aerial view of a whiting event precipitation cloud in Lake Ontario

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