Soil respiration - Knowledge (XXG)

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This rapid increase in available labile substrates causes short-term enhanced soil respiration. Root respiration will increase with increasing soil moisture, especially in dry ecosystems; however, individual species' root respiration response to soil moisture will vary widely from species to species depending on life history traits. Upper levels of soil moisture will depress root respiration by restricting access to atmospheric oxygen. With the exception of wetland plants, which have developed specific mechanisms for root aeration, most plants are not adapted to wetland soil environments with

1067:. Cryophiles function optimally at temperatures below 20 °C (68 °F), mesophiles function best at temperatures between 20 and 40 °C (104 °F) and thermophiles function optimally at over 40 °C (104 °F). In natural soils many different cohorts, or groups of microorganisms exist. These cohorts will all function best at different conditions, so respiration may occur over a very broad range. Temperature increases lead to greater rates of soil respiration until high values retard microbial function, this is the same pattern that is seen with soil moisture levels. 1700:. As discussed earlier, nitrogen can have a significant positive effect on the level and rate of soil respiration. Increases in soil nitrogen have been found to increase plant dark respiration, stimulate specific rates of root respiration and increase total root biomass. This is because high nitrogen rates are associated with high plant growth rates. High plant growth rates will lead to the increased respiration and biomass found in the study. With this increase in productivity, an increase in soil activities and therefore respiration can be assured. 1725:(Pg) of carbon are taken up by land plants and a similar amount is released to the atmosphere through ecosystem respiration. The global soils contain up to 3150 Pg of carbon, of which 450 Pg exist in wetlands and 400 Pg in permanently frozen soils. The soils contain more than four times the carbon as the atmosphere. Researchers have estimated that soil respiration accounts for 77 Pg of carbon released to the atmosphere each year. This level of release is greater than the carbon release due to 1410: 38: 3882: 3517: 615: 970:. These fungi increase the surface area of the plant root and allow the root to encounter and acquire a greater amount of soil nutrients necessary for plant growth. In return for this benefit, the plant will transfer sugars to the fungi. The fungi will respire these sugars for energy thereby increasing soil respiration. Fungi, along with bacteria and soil animals, also play a large role in the decomposition of 3871: 3898: 2538: 2693: 1565:. These changes have affected the rate of soil respiration around the planet. In addition, increasingly frequent extreme climatic events such as heat waves (involving high temperature disturbances and associated intense droughts), followed by intense rainfall, impact on microbial communities and soil physico-chemistry and may induce changes in soil respiration. 1055:

the respiration rate is limited mostly by the TCA cycle. At higher temperatures the transport of sugars and the products of metabolism become the limiting factor. At temperatures over 35 °C (95 °F), root respiration begins to shut down completely. Microorganisms are divided into three temperature groups;

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Different methods exist for the measurement of soil respiration rate and the determination of sources. Methods can be divided into field- and laboratory-based methods. The most common field methods include the use of long-term stand alone soil flux systems for measurement at one location at different

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carbon emissions. There also exists a possibility that this increase in temperature will release carbon stored in permanently frozen soils, which are now melting. Climate models have suggested that this positive feedback between soil respiration and temperature will lead to a decrease in soil stored

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Survey soil respiration systems can also be used to determine the number of long-term stand-alone temporal instruments that are required to achieve an acceptable level of error. Different locations may require different numbers of long-term stand-alone units due to greater or lesser soil respiration

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measurements between successive readings, in an elapsed time. During the assay, the rate of change slowly reduces until it meets the customer's rate of change criteria, or the maximum selected time for the assay. Soil flux or rate of change is then determined once equilibrium conditions are reached

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Due to the shifting patterns of temperature and changing oceanic conditions, precipitation patterns are expected to change in location, frequency and intensity. Larger and more frequent storms are expected when oceans can transfer more energy to the forming storm systems. This may have the greatest

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under low soil moisture conditions. Under high soil moisture conditions, many bacteria take in too much water causing their cell membrane to lyse, or break. This can decrease the rate of soil respiration temporarily, but the lysis of bacteria causes for a spike in resources for many other bacteria.

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is another important factor influencing soil respiration. Soil respiration is low in dry conditions and increases to a maximum at intermediate moisture levels until it begins to decrease when moisture content excludes oxygen. This allows anaerobic conditions to prevail and depress aerobic microbial

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Temperature affects almost all aspects of respiration processes. Temperature will increase respiration exponentially to a maximum, at which point respiration will decrease to zero when enzymatic activity is interrupted. Root respiration increases exponentially with temperature in its low range when

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Plants respire some of the carbon compounds which were generated by photosynthesis. When this respiration occurs in roots, it adds to soil respiration. Root respiration accounts for approximately half of all soil respiration. However, these values can range from 10 to 90% depending on the dominant

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ecosystem (δC=−25 to −28‰). Cane sugar can be sprayed on the soil in a solution and will infiltrate the upper soil, Only microorganisms will respire the added sugar because roots exclusively respire carbon products that are assimilated by the plant via photosynthesis. By analyses of the δC of the

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soil respiration variability at different locations and at different times. With this type of instrument, soil collars that can be connected to the survey measuring instrument are inserted into the ground and the soil is allowed to stabilize for a period of time. The insertion of the soil collar

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Soil respiration can be measured alone or with added nutrients and (carbon) substrates that supply food sources to the microorganisms. Soil respiration without any additions of nutrients and substrates is called the basal soil respiration (BR). With the addition of nutrients (often nitrogen and

1683:. The rate of respiration in dry soil usually bursts to a very high level after rainfall and then gradually decreases as the soil dries. With an increase in rainfall frequency and intensity over area without previous extensive rainfall, a dramatic increase in soil respiration can be inferred. 1514:

SOM in the first 40 days, with a gradual linear increase in heavy isotope enrichment until day 70. The days after 70 showed a slowing enrichment to a peak at day 100. By analyzing stable carbon isotope data it is possible to determine the source components of respired SOM that was produced by

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processes. With the loss of photosynthetic plants covering and cooling the surface of the soil, the infrared energy penetrates the soil heating it up and causing a rise in heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophs in the soil quickly degrade the organic matter and soil structure crumbles, thus it

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These systems measure at one location over long periods of time. Since they only measure at one location, it is common to use multiple stations to reduce measuring error caused by soil variability over small distances. Soil variability may be tested with survey soil respiration instruments.

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Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon is stored in the soil as organic matter and is respired by plants, bacteria, fungi and animals. When this respiration occurs below ground, it is considered soil respiration.

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in litter. This mineralized nitrogen is also added to the soil. Due to these processes, the rate of nitrogen added to the soil is coupled with rates of microbial respiration. Studies have shown that rates of soil respiration were associated with rates of microbial turnover and nitrogen

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in the middle of the last century, vast amounts of nitrogen fertilizers have been produced and introduced to almost all agricultural systems. This has led to increases in plant available nitrogen in ecosystems around the world due to agricultural runoff and wind-driven

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which are released when roots cells break. The amount of carbon lost as exudates varies considerably between plant species. It has been demonstrated that up to 20% of carbon acquired by photosynthesis is released into the soil as root exudates. These exudates are

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O from the sugar. Plants, fungi, animals and bacteria all use this cycle to convert organic compounds to energy. This is how the majority of soil respiration occurs at its most basic level. Since the process relies on oxygen to occur, this is referred to as

1018:. Most macrofauna fragment litter, thereby exposing a greater amount of area to microbial attack. Other macrofauna burrow or ingest litter, reducing soil bulk density, breaking up soil aggregates and increasing soil aeration and the infiltration of water. 1814:

levels, precipitation patterns and fertilization rates, all of which have had a significant role on soil respiration rates. The changes in these rates can alter the global carbon and nutrient cycles as well as play a significant role in climate change.

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pressure discussed under closed mode systems. Since the air movement inside the chamber might cause increased chamber pressure, or external winds may produce reduced chamber pressure, a vent is provided that is designed to be as wind proof as possible.

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activity. Studies have shown that soil moisture only limits respiration at the lowest and highest conditions with a large plateau existing at intermediate soil moisture levels for most ecosystems. Many microorganisms possess strategies for growth and

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One problem in the measurement of soil respiration in the field is that respiration of microorganisms can not be distinguished from respiration from plant roots and soil animals. This can be overcome using stable isotope techniques. Cane sugar is a

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nutrients. During decomposition, nutrients such as nitrogen are immobilized by microbes for their own growth. As these microbes are ingested or die, nitrogen is added to the soil. Nitrogen is also mineralized from the degradation of proteins and

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with global climate change. Positive feedback is when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change. Therefore, soil respiration rates can be affected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change.

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is also present. This is due to the lack of oxygen due to greater oxygen consumption by the root as compared to the bulk soil, soil at a greater distance from the root. Another important organism in the rhizosphere are root-infecting fungi or

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in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration. These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods. Other methods can be used to separate the source components, in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway

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that will continue to trap energy and increase the global mean temperature if concentrations continue to rise. As global temperature rises, so will the rate of soil respiration across the globe thereby leading to a higher concentration of

998:. This group specializes on soil bacteria and fungi. By ingesting these organisms, carbon that was initially in plant organic compounds and was incorporated into bacterial and fungal structures will now be respired by the soil animal. 1275:. There are more published references for linear regression analysis; however, the Pedersen algorithm and exponential regression analysis methods also have their following. Some systems offer a choice of mathematical methods. 1708:

Soil respiration plays a significant role in the global carbon and nutrient cycles as well as being a driver for changes in climate. These roles are important to our understanding of the natural world and human preservation.

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Field respiration using stable isotopes can be used as a tool to measure microbial respiration in-situ without disturbing the microbial communities by mixing soil nutrients, oxygen, and soil contaminants that may be present.

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temporarily disturbs the soil, creating measuring artifacts. For this reason, it is common to have several soil collars inserted at different locations. Soil collars are inserted far enough to limit lateral diffusion of CO

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Shibistova, Olga; Lloyd, Jon; Evgrafova, Svetlana; Savushkina, Nadja; Zrazhevskaya, Galina; Arneth, Almut; Knohl, Alexander; Kolle, Olaf; Schulze, E.-Detlef (November 2002). "Seasonal and spatial variability in soil

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within the chamber. Chamber flow rates and times are programmable, accurately measured, and used in calculations. These systems have vents that are designed to prevent a possible unacceptable buildup of partial CO

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Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity. This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years. Global

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Rochette P, Flanagan L, Gregorich E. (1999) Separating soil respiration into plant and soil components using analysis of natural abundance of carbon-13. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 63, 1207–1213.

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of surface waters causes biological oxygen demand and more autotrophic organisms die. Carbon dioxide levels rise with increased respiration of soil bacteria after temperatures rise due to loss of soil cover.

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Conen F, and Smith K. (2000) An explanation of linear increases in gas concentration under closed chambers used to measure gas exchange between soil and the atmosphere. European Journal of Soil Science. 51,

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Open mode systems are designed to find soil flux rates when measuring chamber equilibrium has been reached. Air flows through the chamber before the chamber is closed and sealed. This purges any non-ambient

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Sabine C, Hemann M, Artaxo P, Bakker D, Chen C, Field C, Gruber N, Le Quere C, Prinn R, Richey J, Romero-Lankao P, Sathaye J, Valentini R. (2003) Current status and past trends of the carbon cycle. Toward

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loop. It is estimated that a rise in temperature by 2 °C will lead to an additional release of 10 Pg carbon per year to the atmosphere from soil respiration. This is a larger amount than current

1810:. Many methods are used to measure soil respiration; however, the closed dynamic chamber and use of stable isotope ratios are two of the most prevalent techniques. Humans have altered atmospheric CO 1282:, multiple data points are graphed and the points can be fitted with a linear regression equation, which will provide a slope. This slope can provide the rate of soil respiration with the equation 932:

is a zone immediately next to the root surface with its neighboring soil. In this zone there is a close interaction between the plant and microorganisms. Roots continuously release substances, or

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conditions. Recent FACE studies have shown large increases in soil respiration due to increased root biomass and microbial activity. Soil respiration has been found to increase up to 40.6% in a

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Flanagan L, and Veum A. (1974) Relationships between respiration, weight loss, temperature and moisture in organic residues in tundra. Soil Organisms and decomposition in Tundra. 249–277.

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plants more enriched in the heavier isotope and therefore root exudates and litter from these plants will also be more enriched. When the carbon in these structures is respired, the CO

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phosphorus) and substrates (e.g. sugars), it is called the substrate-induced soil respiration (SIR). In both BR and SIR measurements, the moisture content can be adjusted with water.

1666:. With an increase in temperature, this permafrost is melting and aerobic conditions are beginning to prevail, thereby greatly increasing the rate of respiration in that ecosystem. 2022:

Sinsabaugh R, Carreiro M, Repert D. (2002) Allocation of extracellular enzymatic activity in relation to litter composition, N deposition, and mass loss. Biogeochemistry. 60, 1–24.

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Mikan C, Schimel J, Doyle A. (2002) Temperature controls of microbial respiration in Arctic tundra soils above and below freezing. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 34, 1785–1795.

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levels from the chamber before measurement. After the chamber is closed, fresh air is pumped into the chamber at a controlled and programmable flow rate. This mixes with the CO

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Hutsch B, Augustin J, Merbach W. (2002) Plant rhizodeposition – an important source for carbon turnover in soils. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 165, 4, 397–407.

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Field C, Ball J, Berry J. (1989) Photosynthesis, Principles and field techniques. Plant physiological ecology, field methods and instrumentation. Chapman and Hall, New York.

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material will hold a greater amount of moisture and have a greater surface area. This will allow for new attack by microorganisms and a greater amount of soil respiration.

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Xu L, Baldocchi D, Tang J. (2004) How soil moisture, rain pulses, and growth alter the response of ecosystem respiration and temperature. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 18.

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Cox P, Betts R, Jones C, Spall S, Totterdell I. (2000) Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature. 408, 184–187.

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Wayson C, Randolph J, Hanson P, Grimmond P, Schmid H. (2006) Comparison of soil respiration methods in a mid-latitude deciduous forest. Biogeochemistry. 80, 173–189.

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is the surface area of the soil covered by the chamber. It is important that the measurement is not allowed to run over a longer period of time as the increase in CO

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directly affects soil respiration in several ways. Nitrogen must be taken in by roots to promote plant growth and life. Most available nitrogen is in the form of NO

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continues to accumulate, measurement periods are reduced to a minimum to achieve a detectable, linear concentration increase, avoiding an excessive build-up of CO

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are the same element that differ in the number of neutrons, thereby making one isotope heavier than the other. The two stable carbon isotopes are C and C. The C

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Atkin O, Edwards E, Loveys B. (2000) Response of root respiration to changes in temperature and its relevance to global warming. New Phytologist. 147, 141–154.

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and specific root respiration rates. Directly next to the root is the area known as the rhizosphere, which also plays an important role in soil respiration.

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in the porous top layer of the soil profile. This increase in concentration will cause an underestimation of soil respiration rate due to the additional CO

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King J, Hanson P, Bernhardt E, Deangelis P, Norby R, Pregitzer K. (2004) A multiyear synthesis of soil respiration responses to elevated atmospheric CO

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Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand. This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global

2260:"Carbon and nitrogen cycling in a lead polluted grassland evaluated using stable isotopes (δ13C and δ15N) and microbial, plant and soil parameters" 3795: 2951: 2460:

Friedlingstein P, Dufresne J, Cox P. (2003) How positive is the feedback between climate change and the global carbon cycle? Tellus. 55B, 692–700.

583: 110: 1426:. After soil stabilization, the researcher then moves from one collar to another according to experimental design to measure soil respiration. 3767: 3228: 646: 464: 2561: 2063: 1256:

respiration measuring information is accessible. It is also common for such systems to also measure soil temperature, soil moisture and PAR (

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levels in our atmosphere increase, and as such the mean average temperature of the Earth is rising. This is due to human activities such as

871:, energy is derived from the carbon compound without the use of oxygen. The products of this reaction are carbon dioxide and usually either 3705: 1905:

Harrison M. (2005) Peace Talks and Trade Deals. Keys to Long-Term Harmony in Legume-Microbe Symbioses. Plant Physiology. 137, 4, 1205–1210.

1162:. High nitrogen litter is considered high quality and is more readily decomposed by microorganisms than low quality litter. Degradation of 899:

released from the soil occurs via respiration and one of the most important aspects of below-ground respiration occurs in the plant roots.

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A hybrid system also exists. It has a vent that is designed to be as wind proof as possible, and prevent possible unacceptable partial CO

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The long-term instruments are designed to expose the measuring site to ambient conditions as much as is possible between measurements.

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from organic compounds. Any respiration that occurs below-ground is considered soil respiration. Respiration by plant roots, bacteria,

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on Soil Microbial Biomass, Activity, and Diversity in a Chaparral Ecosystem. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71, 12, 8573–8580

2124:"Analysis of δ13C of CO2 distinguishes between microbial respiration of added C4-sucrose and other soil respiration in a C3-ecosystem" 1385:

issues at the soil surface. Air flow in the chamber at the soil surface is designed to minimize boundary layer resistance phenomena.

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dissolves into streams and rivers into the sea. Much of the organic matter swept away in floods caused by forest clearing goes into

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Closed systems take short-term measurements (typically over few minutes only) in a chamber sealed over the soil. The rate of soil CO

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Interactions between ecosystem carbon, nitrogen and water cycles under global change: Results from field and mesocosm experiments.

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As mentioned earlier, temperature greatly affects the rate of soil respiration. This may have the most drastic influence in the

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from the soil, and after a time, equilibrium is reached. The researcher specifies the equilibrium point as the difference in CO

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levels to their highest in over 750,000 years. Soil respiration increases when ecosystems are exposed to elevated levels of CO

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Raich J, and Potter C. (1995) Global patterns of carbon dioxide emissions from soils. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 9, 23–36.

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Temperature, soil moisture and nitrogen all regulate the rate of this conversion from carbon in soil organic compounds to CO

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Soil animals graze on populations of bacteria and fungi as well as ingest and break up litter to increase soil respiration.

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plants do well in hot and dry ecosystems. Due to the different photosynthetic enzymes between the two pathways, different

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The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors. The temperature, moisture,

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Lutze J, Gifford R, Adams H. (2000) Litter quality and decomposition in Danthonia richardsonii swards in response to CO

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stores. Much like soil respiration can play a significant role in the global carbon cycle, it can also regulate global

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it can be determined whether the soil respiration is mostly old versus recently formed carbon. For example, maize, a C

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occurs below-ground in the roots, it adds to soil respiration. Over time, plant structural components are consumed by

2034:"Field measurements of soil respiration: principles and constraints, potentials and limitations of different methods" 2013:

Pate J, Layzell D. (1990) Energetics and biological costs of nitrogen assimilation. The biochemistry of plants. 1–42.

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levels will exceed those used in these FACE experiments by the middle of this century due to increased human use of

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but also other nutrients in those structures, such as nitrogen. Soil respiration is also associated with positive

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times; survey soil respiration systems for measurement of different locations and at different times. The use of

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are soil animals from 0.1 to 2 millimeters (0.0039 to 0.0787 in) in length and will ingest soil litter. The

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Chapin III F, Matson P, Mooney H. (2002) Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York.

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into the atmosphere. These emissions have increased greatly over time and have increased global atmospheric CO

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flux over two decades, Effects of climate change at Barrow, Alaska. Ecological Applications. 5, 3, 846–855.

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enrichment (FACE) studies have been conducted to test soil respiration under predicted future elevated CO

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plant or vice versa. By taking soil respiration measurements and analyzing the isotopic ratios of the CO

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primarily by bacteria. These bacteria will respire the carbon compounds through the TCA cycle; however,

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mineralization. Alterations of the global cycles can further act to change the climate of the planet.

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These are either open or closed mode instruments that are portable or semi-portable. They measure CO

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burning. Thus, a small change in soil respiration can seriously alter the balance of atmosphere CO

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in the atmosphere, again leading to higher global temperatures. This is an example of a positive

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is acquired by plants from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of

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pressure buildup, but is designed to operate like a closed mode design system in other regards.

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Lambers H, Chapin III F, Pons T. (1998) Plant physiological ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York.

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increase, researchers have used linear regression analysis, the Pedersen (2001) algorithm, and

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A major component of soil respiration is from the decomposition of litter which releases CO

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patterns. All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration. Increased

2543: 2501: 840:– is an important step in cellular respiration. In the TCA cycle, a six carbon sugar is 3851: 3774: 3454: 3399: 2862: 2835: 2815: 2727: 2672: 2667: 2478: 2339: 1991: 1964: 1780: 1742: 1718: 1463: 1382: 1378: 780: 776: 750: 706: 663: 558: 528: 508: 449: 363: 246: 241: 102: 2170: 3916: 3885: 3788: 3781: 3621: 3590: 3499: 3384: 2889: 2766: 2722: 2293: 2186: 1867: 1159: 1075: 958: 758: 729: 667: 2241: 2155: 3641: 3636: 3611: 3484: 3429: 2857: 2830: 2805: 2761: 2734: 2662: 2657: 2652: 2642: 2600: 1793: 1763: 1503: 1233:

increased inside the chamber. As it is within the nature of closed chambers that CO

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Stabilization: Issues, strategies, and consequences. Island Press. Washington DC.

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Long-term stand-alone soil flux systems for measurement at one location over time

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and nitrogen supply over four years of growth. Global Change Biology. 6, 13–24.

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is another process in which cells gain energy from organic compounds. In this

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Vance E, Chapin III F. (2001) Substrate limitations to microbial activity in

3856: 3631: 3616: 3560: 3459: 3404: 3344: 3107: 3102: 3092: 3027: 2997: 2977: 2906: 2795: 1651: 1606: 1602: 1260:). These variables are normally recorded in the measuring file along with CO 1163: 1136: 1060: 1056: 1011: 999: 909: 887:

in soil respiration in waterlogged ecosystems where oxygen is scarce, as in

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Berg J, Tymoczko J, Stryer L. (2002). Biochemistry. WH Freeman and Company.

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evolving from the soil with or without adding cane sugar, the fraction of C

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and conditions under which the plants are subjected. Thus, the amount of CO

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is released by below-ground organisms, it is considered soil respiration.

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Planton, Serge; Déqué, Michel; Chauvin, Fabrice; Terray, Laurent (2008).

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at the ecosystem level and at global scales. Each year approximately 120

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are organisms from 2 to 20 millimeters (0.079 to 0.787 in), such as

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from four forest FACE experiments. Global Change Biology. 10, 1027–1042.

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will show a similar ratio of the two isotopes. Researchers will grow a C

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is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO

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concentration in the chamber will also increase the concentration of CO

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Bérard, A; Ben Sassi, M; Kaisermann, A; Renault, P (3 December 2015).

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pathway will discriminate against the heavier isotope more than the C

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and industrial practices, which have altered the climate and global

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Klein D, Prescott L, Harley J. (2005). Microbiology. McGraw-Hill.

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Survey soil respiration systems – for testing the variation of CO

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by humans also has the potential to affect rates over the entire

3449: 3284: 3279: 3274: 3269: 2707: 1519:

Substrate-induced respiration in the field using stable isotopes

1510:

plant, was previously grown. The results showed respiration of C

1158:

Another way nitrogen affects soil respiration is through litter

2916: 2573: 2569: 1100:

are becoming popular educational tools for science classrooms.

3434: 2309:"Expected impacts of climate change on extreme climate events" 1854:

efflux rates for a central Siberian Pinus sylvestris forest".

1413:

Measuring spatial variability of soil respiration in the field

1119:

to enter the root because energy must be used to move it up a

2032:

Pumpanen, Jukka; Longdoz, Bernard; L. Kutsch, Werner (2010),

1896:

forest floors. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 33, 2, 173–188.

18:

Chemical process produced by soil and the organisms within it

1717:

Soil respiration plays a critical role in the regulation of

1478:

pathway. This will make the plant structures produced from C

1131:. This step requires more energy, which equals 2 units of CO 916:

produced through root respiration is determined by the root

1442:

and produce organic compounds with the use of one of three

1458:

plants are best adapted to cool and wet conditions while C

879:. Due to the lack of oxygen, this pathway is described as 783:. The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO 1650:, wetlands and eventually into the open ocean. Increased 1405:

respiration at different locations and at different times

1267:

For determination of soil respiration and the slope of CO

1034:, or non-living, factors. Temperature, soil moisture and 1757:

to the environment while simultaneously immobilizing or

990:

are made up of the smallest soil animals. These include

2483:"The impact of land use change on C turnover in soils" 1179:

can be used both in laboratory of field measurements.

812:

All cellular respiration releases energy, water and CO

2411:, Vourlitis G, Hastings S. (1995) Change in Arctic CO 1288: 804:

A portable soil respiration system measuring soil CO

3805: 3752: 3672: 3599: 3533: 3262: 3199: 3126: 2950: 2905: 2700: 2625: 1557:Throughout the past 160 years, humans have changed 1050:

Graph showing soil respiration vs. soil temperature

1038:all contribute to the rate of respiration in soil. 1662:. Large stores of carbon are locked in the frozen 1629:Due to the increase in temperature of the soil, CO 1311: 2208:Menichetti, L.; Ekblad, A.; Kätterer, T. (2013). 1490:plant on soil that was previously occupied by a C 2258:Rijk, Ingrid J. C.; Ekblad, Alf (1 April 2020). 1963:Pezeshki, S. R.; DeLaune, R. D. (26 July 2012). 936:, into the soil. These exudates include sugars, 3680:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated 1135:per molecule reduced. In plants with bacterial 3716:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists 2040:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 16–33, 2928: 2585: 640: 8: 2169:Högberg, P.; Ekblad, A. (1 September 1996). 2122:Ekblad, Alf; Högberg, Peter (1 March 2000). 1545:(microbial respiration) can be calculated. 717:. This heterotrophic consumption releases CO 2382:. (2005) Effects of Elevated Atmospheric CO 1888: 1886: 1446:. The two most prevalent pathways are the C 3897: 2935: 2921: 2913: 2592: 2578: 2570: 1797:carbon by the middle of the 21st century. 1613:conditions. It is extremely likely that CO 1377:Open systems are also not as sensitive to 1216:Types of long-term stand-alone instruments 647: 633: 20: 2509: 2355: 2275: 2053: 1990: 1980: 1940: 1938: 1301: 1287: 3690:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute 1577:, humans have emitted vast amounts of CO 3796:Soil Science Society of America Journal 1823: 1229:efflux is calculated on the basis of CO 584:Territorialisation of carbon governance 28: 3768:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 3229:Canadian system of soil classification 1729:sources (56 Pg per year) such as 757:, increasing temperature and shifting 670:respire. This includes respiration of 2253: 2251: 1030:production in soil is due to various 745:), of the respired plant structures. 589:Total Carbon Column Observing Network 7: 3870: 3706:International Union of Soil Sciences 3733:Soil and Water Conservation Society 2522:University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK. 1515:different photosynthetic pathways. 1258:photosynthetically active radiation 883:. This is an important source of CO 3213:Unified Soil Classification System 2745:Soil retrogression and degradation 1779:released by soil respiration is a 14: 3218:AASHTO Soil Classification System 1331:is the volume of the chamber and 1323:is the rate of soil respiration, 796:Sources of carbon dioxide in soil 3896: 3881: 3880: 3875:Knowledge (XXG):WikiProject Soil 3869: 3761:Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B 3701:Indian Institute of Soil Science 3685:Canadian Society of Soil Science 3516: 3515: 2691: 2536: 2214:European Journal of Soil Science 1868:10.1034/j.1600-0889.2002.01348.x 1641:, and developments that destroy 1221:Closed, non-steady state systems 844:. This oxidation produces the CO 614: 613: 36: 3739:Soil Science Society of America 1502:plant, was grown on soil where 1098:Soil-based microbial fuel cells 820:and soil animals all release CO 697:from the soil in the form of CO 3744:World Congress of Soil Science 3728:Soil Science Society of Poland 3234:Australian Soil Classification 3225:(French classification system) 1553:Responses to human disturbance 1347:being stored within the soil. 1241:inside the chamber over time. 1022:Regulation of soil respiration 828:Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle 824:in soils, as described below. 549:Climate reconstruction proxies 1: 2755:Soil compaction (agriculture) 2175:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 1466:are acquired preferentially. 1123:. Once inside the root the NO 1115:, which costs 0.4 units of CO 2490:Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2187:10.1016/0038-0717(96)00124-1 2046:10.1017/cbo9780511711794.003 662:refers to the production of 519:Carbonate compensation depth 184:Particulate inorganic carbon 3696:German Soil Science Society 3254:List of vineyard soil types 3939: 3711:International Year of Soil 3239:Polish Soil Classification 2678:Environmental soil science 2325:10.1016/j.crte.2008.07.009 2277:10.1007/s11104-020-04467-7 1541:(root and microbial) and C 1351:Open, steady-state systems 689:Soil respiration is a key 574:Carbon capture and storage 178:Particulate organic carbon 172:Dissolved inorganic carbon 3865: 3513: 3263:Non-systematic soil types 2689: 2683:Agricultural soil science 2607: 2313:Comptes Rendus Geoscience 1775:As stated earlier, the CO 1383:boundary layer resistance 579:Carbon cycle re-balancing 3833:Infiltration (hydrology) 3627:Geotechnical engineering 3249:List of U.S. state soils 1670:Changes in precipitation 1621:and land use practices. 1379:soil structure variation 1155:and long-term survival. 554:Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio 514:Carbonate–silicate cycle 482:Carbon dioxide clathrate 477:Clathrate gun hypothesis 305:Net ecosystem production 166:Dissolved organic carbon 3902:List of soil scientists 3244:1938 USDA soil taxonomy 3223:Référentiel pédologique 3207:FAO soil classification 2563:Belowground respiration 2140:10.1023/A:1004732430929 1691:Since the onset of the 1569:Elevated carbon dioxide 1444:photosynthetic pathways 924:Rhizosphere respiration 564:Deep Carbon Observatory 24:Part of a series on the 3673:Societies, Initiatives 2895:Soil water (retention) 1982:10.3390/biology1020196 1687:Nitrogen fertilization 1605:and poplar forests in 1589:. Numerous free air CO 1414: 1313: 1312:{\displaystyle F=bV/A} 1273:exponential regression 1205: 1170:Methods of measurement 1121:concentration gradient 1051: 809: 693:process that releases 384:Continental shelf pump 160:Total inorganic carbon 126:Satellite measurements 3892:Category soil science 3576:Soil salinity control 1737:concentration versus 1713:Global carbon cycling 1575:Industrial Revolution 1563:biogeochemical cycles 1412: 1314: 1199: 1177:stable isotope ratios 1127:must be reduced to NH 1049: 881:anaerobic respiration 803: 732:content and level of 569:Global Carbon Project 300:Ecosystem respiration 3657:Agricultural science 3551:Soil guideline value 3375:Calcareous grassland 2952:World Reference Base 2511:10.1029/1998GB900005 2378:Lipson D, Wilson R, 2038:Soil Carbon Dynamics 1286: 1200:An automated soil CO 855:aerobic respiration. 398:Carbon sequestration 154:Total organic carbon 3753:Scientific journals 2944:Soil classification 2885:Soil organic matter 2846:Pore water pressure 2502:1999GBioC..13...47W 1389:Hybrid Mode Systems 976:soil organic matter 445:Atmospheric methane 411:Soil carbon storage 261:Reverse Krebs cycle 116:Ocean acidification 3848:Impervious surface 3128:USDA soil taxonomy 2954:for Soil Resources 2841:Pore space in soil 2784:Soil acidification 2740:Soil contamination 2546:has a profile for 2477:Wang Y, AmundsoR, 2226:10.1111/ejss.12077 1415: 1309: 1206: 1143:from atmospheric N 1052: 908:plant types in an 895:. However, most CO 834:tricarboxylic acid 810: 524:Great Calcite Belt 472:Aerobic production 292:Carbon respiration 234:Metabolic pathways 194:Primary production 3910: 3909: 3541:Soil conservation 3527: 3526: 2801:Soil biodiversity 2648:Soil microbiology 2565:, Duke University 2552: 2549:soil respiration 2319:(9–10): 564–574. 2065:978-0-511-71179-4 1609:under elevated CO 1438:Plants acquire CO 1280:linear regression 1094:bioelectrogenesis 869:metabolic pathway 838:citric acid cycle 836:(TCA) cycle – or 779:as well as other 711:plant respiration 657: 656: 455:Methane emissions 111:In the atmosphere 3930: 3900: 3899: 3884: 3883: 3873: 3872: 3722:OPAL Soil Centre 3519: 3518: 3415:Hydrophobic soil 2937: 2930: 2923: 2914: 2878:Soil respiration 2695: 2594: 2587: 2580: 2571: 2550: 2540: 2539: 2515: 2513: 2487: 2470: 2467: 2461: 2458: 2452: 2449: 2443: 2435: 2429: 2422: 2416: 2406: 2400: 2393: 2387: 2376: 2370: 2369: 2359: 2344:Climate Research 2335: 2329: 2328: 2304: 2298: 2297: 2279: 2255: 2246: 2245: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2181:(9): 1131–1138. 2166: 2160: 2159: 2119: 2113: 2110: 2104: 2100: 2094: 2091: 2085: 2082: 2076: 2075: 2074: 2072: 2057: 2029: 2023: 2020: 2014: 2011: 2005: 2004: 1994: 1984: 1960: 1954: 1951: 1945: 1942: 1933: 1930: 1924: 1921: 1915: 1912: 1906: 1903: 1897: 1890: 1881: 1878: 1872: 1871: 1846: 1840: 1837: 1831: 1828: 1749:Nutrient cycling 1743:nutrient cycling 1693:Green Revolution 1318: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1248:information and 1244:Both individual 1026:Regulation of CO 903:Root respiration 721:and when this CO 660:Soil respiration 649: 642: 635: 622: 617: 616: 421:pelagic sediment 315:Soil respiration 310:Photorespiration 40: 21: 3938: 3937: 3933: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3928: 3927: 3913: 3912: 3911: 3906: 3861: 3843:Crust (geology) 3823:Land management 3818:Land conversion 3801: 3748: 3668: 3647:Earth materials 3595: 3581:Erosion control 3566:Soil governance 3546:Soil management 3529: 3528: 3523: 3509: 3480:Subaqueous soil 3465:Serpentine soil 3325:Parent material 3258: 3195: 3122: 2953: 2946: 2941: 2901: 2821:Soil resilience 2750:Soil compaction 2718:Soil morphology 2696: 2687: 2621: 2603: 2598: 2558: 2557: 2556: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2485: 2476: 2473: 2468: 2464: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2377: 2373: 2357:10.3354/cr01343 2337: 2336: 2332: 2306: 2305: 2301: 2257: 2256: 2249: 2207: 2206: 2202: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2031: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2008: 1962: 1961: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1900: 1891: 1884: 1879: 1875: 1853: 1848: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1813: 1809: 1803: 1787: 1778: 1773: 1756: 1751: 1736: 1715: 1706: 1689: 1672: 1635:forest clearing 1632: 1627: 1625:Climate warming 1616: 1612: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1571: 1555: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1531: 1527: 1521: 1513: 1509: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1464:carbon isotopes 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1441: 1436: 1434:Isotope methods 1425: 1420: 1407: 1404: 1396: 1391: 1372: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1353: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1284: 1283: 1270: 1263: 1255: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1204:exchange system 1203: 1194: 1189: 1172: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1118: 1114: 1106: 1073: 1044: 1029: 1024: 984: 926: 915: 905: 898: 886: 862: 851: 847: 830: 823: 815: 807: 798: 786: 781:nutrient cycles 756: 724: 720: 704: 700: 653: 612: 605: 604: 603: 543: 535: 534: 533: 498: 488: 487: 486: 439: 429: 428: 427: 416:Marine sediment 400: 390: 389: 388: 349:Solubility pump 337:Biological pump 331: 321: 320: 319: 294: 284: 283: 282: 266:Carbon fixation 251: 236: 226: 225: 224: 205: 189: 142: 140:Forms of carbon 132: 131: 130: 105: 95: 94: 93: 48: 19: 12: 11: 5: 3936: 3934: 3926: 3925: 3915: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3905: 3904: 3894: 3888: 3877: 3866: 3863: 3862: 3860: 3859: 3854: 3852:Surface runoff 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3809: 3807: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3799: 3792: 3785: 3778: 3775:Plant and Soil 3771: 3764: 3756: 3754: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3730: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3687: 3682: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3669: 3667: 3666: 3665: 3664: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3603: 3601: 3600:Related fields 3597: 3596: 3594: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3537: 3535: 3531: 3530: 3525: 3524: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3508: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3455:Prime farmland 3452: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3410:Fuller's earth 3407: 3402: 3400:Expansive clay 3397: 3392: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3277: 3272: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3132: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3120: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3075: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2959: 2957: 2948: 2947: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2932: 2925: 2917: 2911: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2900: 2899: 2898: 2897: 2887: 2882: 2881: 2880: 2870: 2865: 2863:Soil biomantle 2860: 2855: 2850: 2849: 2848: 2843: 2836:Soil structure 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2816:Soil fertility 2813: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2787: 2786: 2776: 2775: 2774: 2764: 2759: 2758: 2757: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2731: 2730: 2728:Soil formation 2725: 2720: 2710: 2704: 2702: 2698: 2697: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2685: 2680: 2675: 2673:Soil chemistry 2670: 2668:Soil mechanics 2665: 2660: 2655: 2650: 2645: 2640: 2635: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2622: 2620: 2619: 2614: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2599: 2597: 2596: 2589: 2582: 2574: 2568: 2567: 2542: 2535: 2534: 2533: 2531: 2530:External links 2528: 2527: 2526: 2523: 2516: 2472: 2471: 2462: 2453: 2444: 2439: 2430: 2425: 2417: 2412: 2401: 2396: 2388: 2383: 2371: 2350:(3): 243–264. 2330: 2299: 2270:(1): 249–266. 2264:Plant and Soil 2247: 2220:(5): 621–628. 2200: 2161: 2134:(1): 197–209. 2128:Plant and Soil 2114: 2105: 2095: 2086: 2077: 2064: 2024: 2015: 2006: 1975:(2): 196–221. 1955: 1946: 1934: 1925: 1916: 1907: 1898: 1882: 1873: 1862:(5): 552–567. 1851: 1841: 1832: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1799: 1785: 1781:greenhouse gas 1776: 1772: 1771:Climate change 1769: 1754: 1750: 1747: 1734: 1719:carbon cycling 1714: 1711: 1705: 1702: 1688: 1685: 1671: 1668: 1630: 1626: 1623: 1614: 1610: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1570: 1567: 1554: 1551: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1517: 1511: 1507: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1423: 1418: 1406: 1402: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1387: 1370: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1352: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1327:is the slope, 1308: 1304: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1268: 1261: 1253: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1201: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1171: 1168: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1116: 1112: 1105: 1102: 1072: 1069: 1043: 1040: 1027: 1023: 1020: 983: 980: 925: 922: 913: 904: 901: 896: 884: 861: 858: 849: 845: 829: 826: 821: 813: 805: 797: 794: 784: 777:carbon cycling 754: 751:climate change 722: 718: 707:photosynthesis 702: 698: 668:soil organisms 664:carbon dioxide 655: 654: 652: 651: 644: 637: 629: 626: 625: 624: 623: 607: 606: 602: 601: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 559:Deep biosphere 556: 551: 545: 544: 541: 540: 537: 536: 532: 531: 529:Redfield ratio 526: 521: 516: 511: 509:Nutrient cycle 506: 500: 499: 496:Biogeochemical 494: 493: 490: 489: 485: 484: 479: 474: 469: 468: 467: 462: 452: 450:Methanogenesis 447: 441: 440: 435: 434: 431: 430: 426: 425: 424: 423: 413: 408: 402: 401: 396: 395: 392: 391: 387: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 364:Microbial loop 361: 356: 351: 346: 345: 344: 333: 332: 327: 326: 323: 322: 318: 317: 312: 307: 302: 296: 295: 290: 289: 286: 285: 281: 280: 279: 278: 273: 263: 258: 252: 250: 249: 247:Chemosynthesis 244: 242:Photosynthesis 238: 237: 232: 231: 228: 227: 223: 222: 217: 212: 206: 204: 203: 202: 201: 190: 188: 187: 181: 175: 169: 163: 157: 151: 144: 143: 138: 137: 134: 133: 129: 128: 123: 118: 113: 107: 106: 103:Carbon dioxide 101: 100: 97: 96: 92: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 50: 49: 46: 45: 42: 41: 33: 32: 26: 25: 17: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3935: 3924: 3921: 3920: 3918: 3903: 3895: 3893: 3889: 3887: 3886:Category soil 3878: 3876: 3868: 3867: 3864: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3789:Soil Research 3786: 3784: 3783: 3782:Pochvovedenie 3779: 3777: 3776: 3772: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3763: 3762: 3758: 3757: 3755: 3751: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3723: 3720: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3671: 3663: 3660: 3659: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3622:Geomorphology 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3598: 3592: 3591:Liming (soil) 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3532: 3522: 3521:Types of soil 3512: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3500:Tropical peat 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3468: 3466: 3463: 3461: 3458: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3393: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3385:Dry quicksand 3383: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3373: 3371: 3368: 3366: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3288: 3286: 3283: 3281: 3278: 3276: 3273: 3271: 3268: 3267: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3204: 3202: 3200:Other systems 3198: 3192: 3189: 3187: 3184: 3182: 3179: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3119: 3116: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3081: 3079: 3076: 3074: 3071: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3016: 3014: 3011: 3009: 3006: 3004: 3001: 2999: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2949: 2945: 2938: 2933: 2931: 2926: 2924: 2919: 2918: 2915: 2910: 2908: 2904: 2896: 2893: 2892: 2891: 2890:Soil moisture 2888: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2876: 2875: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2859: 2856: 2854: 2851: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2838: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2812: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2785: 2782: 2781: 2780: 2777: 2773: 2770: 2769: 2768: 2767:Soil salinity 2765: 2763: 2760: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2729: 2726: 2724: 2723:Pedodiversity 2721: 2719: 2716: 2715: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2705: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2606: 2602: 2595: 2590: 2588: 2583: 2581: 2576: 2575: 2572: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2559: 2554: 2553: 2545: 2529: 2524: 2521: 2518:Su B. (2005) 2517: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2474: 2466: 2463: 2457: 2454: 2448: 2445: 2434: 2431: 2421: 2418: 2410: 2405: 2402: 2392: 2389: 2381: 2375: 2372: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2303: 2300: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2204: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2165: 2162: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2118: 2115: 2109: 2106: 2099: 2096: 2090: 2087: 2081: 2078: 2067: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2028: 2025: 2019: 2016: 2010: 2007: 2002: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1959: 1956: 1950: 1947: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1929: 1926: 1920: 1917: 1911: 1908: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1877: 1874: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1845: 1842: 1836: 1833: 1827: 1824: 1818: 1816: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1794:anthropogenic 1791: 1782: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1764:nucleic acids 1760: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1732: 1728: 1727:anthropogenic 1724: 1720: 1712: 1710: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1698:fertilization 1694: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1681:raining cycle 1678: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1576: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1518: 1516: 1505: 1469: 1465: 1445: 1433: 1431: 1430:variability. 1427: 1411: 1400: 1398: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1350: 1348: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1281: 1276: 1274: 1265: 1259: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1220: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1198: 1191: 1187:Field methods 1186: 1184: 1180: 1178: 1169: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1160:decomposition 1156: 1154: 1138: 1122: 1110: 1103: 1101: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1076:Soil moisture 1071:Soil moisture 1070: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1048: 1041: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1021: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 981: 979: 977: 973: 969: 964: 960: 955: 951: 947: 946:carbohydrates 944:, long chain 943: 939: 935: 931: 923: 921: 919: 911: 902: 900: 894: 890: 882: 878: 874: 873:ethyl alcohol 870: 866: 859: 857: 856: 843: 839: 835: 827: 825: 819: 802: 795: 793: 790: 782: 778: 773: 771: 767: 766:fertilization 764: 760: 759:precipitation 752: 746: 744: 740: 735: 731: 726: 716: 712: 708: 696: 692: 687: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 650: 645: 643: 638: 636: 631: 630: 628: 627: 621: 611: 610: 609: 608: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 546: 539: 538: 530: 527: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 504:Marine cycles 502: 501: 497: 492: 491: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 466: 463: 461: 458: 457: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 442: 438: 433: 432: 422: 419: 418: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 403: 399: 394: 393: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 355: 352: 350: 347: 343: 340: 339: 338: 335: 334: 330: 325: 324: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 297: 293: 288: 287: 277: 274: 272: 269: 268: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 253: 248: 245: 243: 240: 239: 235: 230: 229: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 207: 200: 197: 196: 195: 192: 191: 185: 182: 179: 176: 173: 170: 167: 164: 161: 158: 155: 152: 149: 146: 145: 141: 136: 135: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 108: 104: 99: 98: 90: 87: 85: 84:Boreal forest 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 70: 67: 65: 62: 60: 57: 55: 52: 51: 44: 43: 39: 35: 34: 31: 27: 23: 22: 16: 3923:Soil biology 3794: 3787: 3780: 3773: 3766: 3759: 3642:Biogeography 3637:Hydrogeology 3612:Geochemistry 3534:Applications 3430:Martian soil 2877: 2858:Soil horizon 2831:Soil texture 2806:Soil quality 2762:Soil sealing 2735:Soil erosion 2663:Soil physics 2658:Soil ecology 2653:Soil zoology 2643:Soil biology 2601:Soil science 2562: 2548: 2496:(1): 47–57. 2493: 2489: 2465: 2456: 2447: 2433: 2420: 2404: 2391: 2374: 2347: 2343: 2333: 2316: 2312: 2302: 2267: 2263: 2217: 2213: 2203: 2178: 2174: 2164: 2131: 2127: 2117: 2108: 2098: 2089: 2080: 2069:, retrieved 2037: 2027: 2018: 2009: 1972: 1968: 1958: 1949: 1928: 1919: 1910: 1901: 1876: 1859: 1855: 1844: 1835: 1826: 1804: 1774: 1759:mineralizing 1752: 1716: 1707: 1690: 1673: 1657: 1628: 1619:fossil fuels 1572: 1556: 1547: 1522: 1504:spring wheat 1454:processes. C 1437: 1428: 1416: 1392: 1376: 1354: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1277: 1266: 1243: 1224: 1211: 1207: 1181: 1173: 1157: 1153:reproduction 1107: 1074: 1065:thermophiles 1053: 1025: 985: 982:Soil animals 963:fermentation 927: 906: 865:Fermentation 863: 860:Fermentation 831: 811: 774: 747: 727: 715:heterotrophs 688: 659: 658: 342:Martin curve 329:Carbon pumps 314: 256:Calvin cycle 210:Black carbon 148:Total carbon 89:Geochemistry 30:Carbon cycle 15: 3838:Groundwater 3652:Archaeology 3586:Agroecology 3556:Soil survey 3495:Terra rossa 3490:Terra preta 3470:Spodic soil 3390:Duplex soil 3370:Brown earth 3350:Alkali soil 3340:Rhizosphere 3335:Laimosphere 3209:(1974–1998) 3166:Inceptisols 3073:Plinthosols 3038:Kastanozems 2868:Soil carbon 2791:Soil health 2772:Alkali soil 2701:Soil topics 2626:Main fields 2055:2268/211761 1739:soil carbon 1731:fossil fuel 1643:autotrophic 1278:When using 1042:Temperature 968:mycorrhizae 938:amino acids 930:rhizosphere 877:lactic acid 676:rhizosphere 672:plant roots 406:Carbon sink 369:Viral shunt 359:Marine snow 215:Blue carbon 69:Deep carbon 64:Atmospheric 54:Terrestrial 3828:Vegetation 3571:Soil value 3475:Stagnogley 3425:Lunar soil 3380:Dark earth 3365:Brickearth 3330:Pedosphere 3300:Soil crust 3108:Technosols 3093:Solonchaks 3013:Ferralsols 2978:Anthrosols 2853:Soil crust 2826:Soil color 2811:Soil value 2713:Pedosphere 2638:Edaphology 2479:Trumbore S 1819:References 1704:Importance 1675:impact on 1664:permafrost 1601:forest in 1573:Since the 1147:is 2.36 CO 1086:low oxygen 1061:mesophiles 1057:cryophiles 1012:earthworms 1008:Macrofauna 988:Microfauna 959:decomposed 379:Whale pump 374:Jelly pump 354:Lipid pump 79:Permafrost 47:By regions 3857:Petrichor 3632:Hydrology 3617:Petrology 3561:Soil test 3460:Quicksand 3405:Fill dirt 3345:Bulk soil 3191:Vertisols 3181:Spodosols 3171:Mollisols 3161:Histosols 3146:Aridisols 3118:Vertisols 3113:Umbrisols 3103:Stagnosol 3068:Planosols 3063:Phaeozems 3043:Leptosols 3028:Gypsisols 3018:Fluvisols 2998:Chernozem 2993:Cambisols 2988:Calcisols 2983:Arenosols 2907:Soil type 2796:Soil life 2551:(Q889453) 2366:0936-577X 2294:212689936 2286:1573-5036 2234:1365-2389 2195:0038-0717 2148:1573-5036 1723:petagrams 1652:turbidity 1648:estuaries 1607:Wisconsin 1603:Tennessee 1164:cellulose 1137:symbionts 1000:Mesofauna 992:nematodes 910:ecosystem 889:peat bogs 691:ecosystem 3917:Category 3813:Land use 3806:See also 3662:Agrology 3445:Paleosol 3360:Blue goo 3315:Gypcrust 3186:Ultisols 3156:Gelisols 3151:Entisols 3141:Andisols 3136:Alfisols 3098:Solonetz 3088:Retisols 3083:Regosols 3058:Nitisols 3053:Luvisols 3048:Lixisols 3033:Histosol 3023:Gleysols 3008:Durisols 3003:Cryosols 2973:Andosols 2963:Acrisols 2873:Soil gas 2633:Pedology 2481:(1999). 2409:Oechel W 2380:Oechel W 2242:93540574 2156:11240355 2103:111–117. 2001:24832223 1856:Tellus B 1790:feedback 1639:denuding 1599:sweetgum 1559:land use 1468:Isotopes 1381:, or to 1319:, where 1264:values. 1109:Nitrogen 1104:Nitrogen 1092:through 1081:survival 1036:nitrogen 1016:termites 942:vitamins 934:exudates 893:wetlands 842:oxidized 789:feedback 763:nitrogen 730:nutrient 680:microbes 620:Category 3890: 3692:(India) 3607:Geology 3395:Eluvium 3355:Bay mud 3320:Caliche 3310:Hardpan 3305:Claypan 3295:Subsoil 3290:Topsoil 3176:Oxisols 3078:Podzols 2968:Alisols 2956:(1998–) 2779:Soil pH 2612:History 2544:Scholia 2498:Bibcode 2071:7 March 1992:4009779 1969:Biology 1801:Summary 1637:, soil 1250:diurnal 1032:abiotic 954:lysates 950:enzymes 918:biomass 465:Wetland 437:Methane 220:Kerogen 121:Removal 3879: 3505:Yedoma 3440:Muskeg 2364: 2292: 2284: 2240: 2232: 2193: 2154: 2146: 2062: 1999: 1989: 1660:Arctic 972:litter 770:planet 734:oxygen 695:carbon 674:, the 618: 599:CO2SYS 460:Arctic 199:marine 59:Marine 3485:Takir 3420:Loess 2617:Index 2486:(PDF) 2290:S2CID 2238:S2CID 2152:S2CID 1894:taiga 1677:xeric 1506:, a C 1450:and C 1246:assay 1090:redox 1004:fecal 996:mites 848:and H 818:fungi 684:fauna 666:when 594:C4MIP 542:Other 186:(PIC) 180:(POC) 174:(DIC) 168:(DOC) 162:(TIC) 156:(TOC) 3735:(US) 3724:(UK) 3718:(US) 3450:Peat 3285:Loam 3280:Clay 3275:Silt 3270:Sand 2708:Soil 2362:ISSN 2282:ISSN 2230:ISSN 2191:ISSN 2144:ISSN 2073:2020 2060:ISBN 1997:PMID 1063:and 1014:and 994:and 974:and 952:and 928:The 891:and 832:The 808:flux 701:. CO 682:and 150:(TC) 74:Soil 3435:Mud 2506:doi 2352:doi 2321:doi 2317:340 2272:doi 2268:449 2222:doi 2183:doi 2136:doi 2132:219 2050:hdl 2042:doi 1987:PMC 1977:doi 1864:doi 875:or 3919:: 2504:. 2494:13 2492:. 2488:. 2438:CO 2360:. 2348:66 2346:. 2342:. 2315:. 2311:. 2288:. 2280:. 2266:. 2262:. 2250:^ 2236:. 2228:. 2218:64 2216:. 2212:. 2189:. 2179:28 2177:. 2173:. 2150:. 2142:. 2130:. 2126:. 2058:, 2048:, 2036:, 1995:. 1985:. 1971:. 1967:. 1937:^ 1885:^ 1860:54 1858:. 1850:CO 1784:CO 1745:. 1533:CO 1356:CO 1252:CO 1096:. 1059:, 978:. 948:, 940:, 772:. 743:C4 739:C3 686:. 678:, 276:C4 271:C3 3850:/ 2936:e 2929:t 2922:v 2593:e 2586:t 2579:v 2555:. 2514:. 2508:: 2500:: 2440:2 2426:2 2413:2 2397:2 2384:2 2368:. 2354:: 2327:. 2323:: 2296:. 2274:: 2244:. 2224:: 2197:. 2185:: 2158:. 2138:: 2052:: 2044:: 2003:. 1979:: 1973:1 1870:. 1866:: 1852:2 1812:2 1808:2 1786:2 1777:2 1755:2 1735:2 1631:2 1615:2 1611:2 1595:2 1591:2 1587:2 1583:2 1579:2 1543:4 1539:3 1535:2 1530:3 1526:4 1524:C 1512:3 1508:3 1500:4 1496:2 1492:3 1488:4 1484:2 1480:4 1476:4 1472:3 1460:4 1456:3 1452:4 1448:3 1440:2 1424:2 1419:2 1403:2 1395:2 1371:2 1366:2 1362:2 1358:2 1345:2 1341:2 1337:2 1333:A 1329:V 1325:b 1321:F 1307:A 1303:/ 1299:V 1296:b 1293:= 1290:F 1269:2 1262:2 1254:2 1239:2 1235:2 1231:2 1227:2 1202:2 1149:2 1145:2 1141:3 1133:2 1129:3 1125:3 1117:2 1113:3 1028:2 914:2 897:2 885:2 850:2 846:2 822:2 814:2 806:2 785:2 755:2 741:/ 737:( 723:2 719:2 703:2 699:2 648:e 641:t 634:v

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