934:) ions. Normally, the balance of these species leaves a net positive charge. With respect to the carbonate system, this excess positive charge shifts the balance of carbonate species towards negative ions to compensate. The result of which is a reduced concentration of the free carbon dioxide and carbonic acid species, which in turn leads to an oceanic uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to restore balance. Thus, the greater the positive charge imbalance, the greater the solubility of carbon dioxide. In carbonate chemistry terms, this imbalance is referred to as
1026:
74:
651:
742:
20:
722:
Since deep water (that is, seawater in the ocean's interior) is formed under the same surface conditions that promote carbon dioxide solubility, it contains a higher concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon than might be expected from average surface concentrations. Consequently, these two
1242:
Orr, J. C., E. Maier-Reimer, U. Mikolajewicz, P. Monfray, J. L. Sarmiento, J. R. Toggweiler, N. K. Taylor, J. Palmer, N. Gruber, C. L. Sabine, C. Le Quéré, R. M. Key and J. Boutin (2001). Estimates of anthropogenic carbon uptake from four three-dimensional global ocean models.
1203:
Takahashi, Taro; Sutherland, Stewart C.; Sweeney, Colm; Poisson, Alain; Metzl, Nicolas; Tilbrook, Bronte; Bates, Nicolas; Wanninkhof, Rik; Feely, Richard A.; Sabine, Christopher; Olafsson, Jon; Nojiri, Yukihiro (2002). "Global sea–air
986:. Measuring any two of these parameters allows for the determination of a wide range of pH-dependent species (including the above-mentioned species). This balance can be changed by a number of processes. For example, the
1017:. Each of these has different effects on each of the four basic parameters, and together they exert strong influences on global cycles. The net and local charge of the oceans remains neutral during any chemical process.
726:
One consequence of this is that when deep water upwells in warmer, equatorial latitudes, it strongly outgasses carbon dioxide to the atmosphere because of the reduced solubility of the gas.
878:
854:
827:
1115:
into the deep ocean. However, the magnitude of these processes is still uncertain, preventing good long-term estimates of the fate of the solubility pump.
161:
446:
119:
1060:
are believed to be entering the ocean. The solubility pump is the primary mechanism driving this flux, with the consequence that anthropogenic CO
619:
146:
682:
500:
1064:
is reaching the ocean interior via high latitude sites of deep water formation (particularly the North
Atlantic). Ultimately, most of the CO
624:
1068:
emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean, however the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain.
89:
887:
The balance of these carbonate species (which ultimately affects the solubility of carbon dioxide), is dependent on factors such as
1368:
549:
554:
539:
219:
756:
for instance), it reacts with water and forms a balance of several ionic and non-ionic species (collectively known as
609:
507:
213:
207:
46:
1333:
999:
614:
234:
675:
1358:
1155:
1108:
715:
589:
517:
512:
495:
340:
201:
99:
708:
599:
114:
1160:
1145:
943:
757:
419:
195:
156:
124:
1373:
1363:
668:
655:
604:
335:
1334:
Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms.
1309:
863:
839:
812:
718:
is driven by the formation of deep water at high latitudes where seawater is usually cooler and denser
1217:
1104:
1014:
531:
433:
189:
94:
1289:
1208:
flux based on climatological surface ocean pCO2, and seasonal biological and temperature effects".
1150:
1123:
480:
296:
151:
559:
327:
311:
306:
229:
1025:
1003:
490:
269:
104:
1272:
1225:
979:
456:
350:
345:
73:
1140:
730:
584:
451:
372:
301:
175:
34:
1290:
Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model.
1221:
1107:, isolating the surface ocean from deeper waters. Additionally, changes in the ocean's
1180:
1103:
in seawater, slowing the ocean's response to emissions. Warming also acts to increase
1092:
1010:
749:
704:
594:
564:
544:
485:
399:
282:
277:
138:
1229:
695:
The solubility pump is driven by the coincidence of two processes in the ocean :
1352:
1096:
768:
723:
processes act together to pump carbon from the atmosphere into the ocean's interior.
1288:
Cox, P. M., Betts, R. A., Jones, C. D., Spall, S. A. and
Totterdell, I. J. (2000).
741:
1088:
1072:
892:
377:
291:
245:
183:
65:
1041:
780:
441:
414:
409:
404:
394:
364:
250:
109:
1135:
1037:
961:
935:
700:
389:
995:
908:
904:
788:
752:, like other gases, is soluble in water. However, unlike many other gases (
1276:
1126:
which is believed will have negative consequences for marine ecosystems.
920:
896:
19:
1084:
1053:
931:
924:
912:
472:
255:
941:
In terms of measurement, four basic parameters are of key importance:
899:
this is regulated by the charge balance of a number of positive (e.g.
1045:
900:
753:
634:
42:
1310:
Slowing of the
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 25° N.
1111:(specifically slowing) may act to decrease transport of dissolved CO
733:. For an overview of both pumps, see Raven & Falkowski (1999).
1024:
740:
629:
31:
18:
1052:
to the atmosphere. Presently, about one third (approximately 2
987:
1308:
Bryden, H. L., Longworth, H. R. and
Cunningham, S. A. (2005).
1122:
from the atmosphere acts to decrease climate change, it causes
729:
The solubility pump has a biological counterpart known as the
1029:
Vertical inventory of "present day" (1990s) anthropogenic CO
888:
1210:
Deep Sea
Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography
745:
Carbon dioxide solubility in water, temperature dependency
1087:
of carbon per year by 2100. This was partially due to
760:, or DIC). These are dissolved free carbon dioxide (CO
1083:
uptake will begin to saturate at a maximum rate at 5
866:
842:
815:
1056:
of carbon per year) of anthropogenic emissions of CO
1091:in the seawater carbonate system, but also due to
872:
848:
821:
795:), and they interact with water as follows :
49:(DIC) from the ocean's surface to its interior.
16:Physico-chemical process which transports carbon
41:is a physico-chemical process that transports
676:
8:
711:(i.e. solubility is greater in cooler water)
1259:Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO
1179:Raven, J. A. and P. G. Falkowski (1999).
1118:While ocean absorption of anthropogenic CO
1044:, land-use changes, and the production of
683:
669:
56:
865:
841:
814:
1172:
1075:up to the end of the 21st century, Cox
620:Territorialisation of carbon governance
64:
625:Total Carbon Column Observing Network
7:
1079:(2000) predicted that the rate of CO
14:
1009:, or biological activity such as
1181:Oceanic sinks for atmospheric CO
873:{\displaystyle \leftrightarrow }
849:{\displaystyle \leftrightarrow }
822:{\displaystyle \leftrightarrow }
707:is a strong inverse function of
650:
649:
72:
1099:decreases the solubility of CO
867:
843:
816:
585:Climate reconstruction proxies
1:
1230:10.1016/S0967-0645(02)00003-6
555:Carbonate compensation depth
220:Particulate inorganic carbon
1390:
758:dissolved inorganic carbon
610:Carbon capture and storage
214:Particulate organic carbon
208:Dissolved inorganic carbon
47:dissolved inorganic carbon
1245:Global Biogeochem. Cycles
737:Carbon dioxide solubility
615:Carbon cycle re-balancing
1156:Thermohaline circulation
1109:thermohaline circulation
1048:have led to a flux of CO
716:thermohaline circulation
590:Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
550:Carbonate–silicate cycle
518:Carbon dioxide clathrate
513:Clathrate gun hypothesis
341:Net ecosystem production
202:Dissolved organic carbon
915:) and negative (e.g. CO
600:Deep Carbon Observatory
60:Part of a series on the
1161:Total inorganic carbon
1146:Continental shelf pump
1033:
944:Total inorganic carbon
874:
850:
823:
746:
420:Continental shelf pump
196:Total inorganic carbon
162:Satellite measurements
27:
23:Air-sea exchange of CO
1369:Chemical oceanography
1028:
1021:Anthropogenic changes
875:
851:
824:
744:
605:Global Carbon Project
336:Ecosystem respiration
22:
1277:10.1029/2004JC002625
1105:ocean stratification
864:
840:
813:
709:seawater temperature
434:Carbon sequestration
190:Total organic carbon
1263:in geologic time.
1222:2002DSRII..49.1601T
1216:(9–10): 1601–1622.
1188:Plant Cell Environ.
1151:Ocean acidification
1124:ocean acidification
481:Atmospheric methane
447:Soil carbon storage
297:Reverse Krebs cycle
152:Ocean acidification
1034:
870:
846:
819:
747:
560:Great Calcite Belt
508:Aerobic production
328:Carbon respiration
270:Metabolic pathways
230:Primary production
28:
693:
692:
491:Methane emissions
147:In the atmosphere
1381:
1343:
1326:
1320:
1306:
1300:
1286:
1280:
1265:J. Geophys. Res.
1257:
1251:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1200:
1194:
1177:
891:, as shown in a
879:
877:
876:
871:
855:
853:
852:
847:
828:
826:
825:
820:
685:
678:
671:
658:
653:
652:
457:pelagic sediment
351:Soil respiration
346:Photorespiration
76:
57:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1359:Aquatic ecology
1349:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1327:
1323:
1307:
1303:
1287:
1283:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1241:
1237:
1207:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1184:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1141:Biological pump
1132:
1121:
1114:
1102:
1089:non-linearities
1082:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1051:
1032:
1023:
1007:
993:
983:
972:
968:
957:
953:
952:
928:
918:
885:
883:
862:
861:
859:
838:
837:
836:
832:
811:
810:
808:
804:
801:
794:
786:
778:
774:
766:
763:
739:
731:biological pump
689:
648:
641:
640:
639:
579:
571:
570:
569:
534:
524:
523:
522:
475:
465:
464:
463:
452:Marine sediment
436:
426:
425:
424:
385:Solubility pump
373:Biological pump
367:
357:
356:
355:
330:
320:
319:
318:
302:Carbon fixation
287:
272:
262:
261:
260:
241:
225:
178:
176:Forms of carbon
168:
167:
166:
141:
131:
130:
129:
84:
55:
39:solubility pump
35:biogeochemistry
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1387:
1385:
1377:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1344:
1321:
1301:
1281:
1260:
1252:
1235:
1205:
1195:
1182:
1171:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1131:
1128:
1119:
1112:
1100:
1093:climate change
1080:
1071:In a study of
1065:
1061:
1057:
1049:
1030:
1022:
1019:
1011:photosynthesis
1005:
991:
981:
970:
966:
955:
950:
948:
926:
916:
881:
869:
857:
845:
834:
830:
818:
806:
802:
799:
797:
792:
784:
776:
772:
764:
761:
750:Carbon dioxide
738:
735:
720:
719:
712:
705:carbon dioxide
691:
690:
688:
687:
680:
673:
665:
662:
661:
660:
659:
643:
642:
638:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
595:Deep biosphere
592:
587:
581:
580:
577:
576:
573:
572:
568:
567:
565:Redfield ratio
562:
557:
552:
547:
545:Nutrient cycle
542:
536:
535:
532:Biogeochemical
530:
529:
526:
525:
521:
520:
515:
510:
505:
504:
503:
498:
488:
486:Methanogenesis
483:
477:
476:
471:
470:
467:
466:
462:
461:
460:
459:
449:
444:
438:
437:
432:
431:
428:
427:
423:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
400:Microbial loop
397:
392:
387:
382:
381:
380:
369:
368:
363:
362:
359:
358:
354:
353:
348:
343:
338:
332:
331:
326:
325:
322:
321:
317:
316:
315:
314:
309:
299:
294:
288:
286:
285:
283:Chemosynthesis
280:
278:Photosynthesis
274:
273:
268:
267:
264:
263:
259:
258:
253:
248:
242:
240:
239:
238:
237:
226:
224:
223:
217:
211:
205:
199:
193:
187:
180:
179:
174:
173:
170:
169:
165:
164:
159:
154:
149:
143:
142:
139:Carbon dioxide
137:
136:
133:
132:
128:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
86:
85:
82:
81:
78:
77:
69:
68:
62:
61:
54:
51:
24:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1386:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1239:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1176:
1173:
1166:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1116:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1097:Ocean warming
1094:
1090:
1086:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1027:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1001:
1000:precipitation
997:
989:
985:
984:
976:
964:
963:
946:
945:
939:
937:
933:
929:
922:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
796:
790:
782:
770:
769:carbonic acid
759:
755:
751:
743:
736:
734:
732:
727:
724:
717:
713:
710:
706:
702:
698:
697:
696:
686:
681:
679:
674:
672:
667:
666:
664:
663:
657:
647:
646:
645:
644:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
586:
583:
582:
575:
574:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
540:Marine cycles
538:
537:
533:
528:
527:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
502:
499:
497:
494:
493:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
478:
474:
469:
468:
458:
455:
454:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
439:
435:
430:
429:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
379:
376:
375:
374:
371:
370:
366:
361:
360:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
333:
329:
324:
323:
313:
310:
308:
305:
304:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
289:
284:
281:
279:
276:
275:
271:
266:
265:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
243:
236:
233:
232:
231:
228:
227:
221:
218:
215:
212:
209:
206:
203:
200:
197:
194:
191:
188:
185:
182:
181:
177:
172:
171:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
144:
140:
135:
134:
126:
123:
121:
120:Boreal forest
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
87:
80:
79:
75:
71:
70:
67:
63:
59:
58:
52:
50:
48:
44:
40:
36:
33:
21:
1374:Geochemistry
1364:Carbon cycle
1339:
1336:
1329:
1324:
1316:
1312:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1284:
1268:
1264:
1255:
1247:
1244:
1238:
1213:
1209:
1198:
1190:
1187:
1175:
1117:
1076:
1073:carbon cycle
1070:
1042:fossil fuels
1035:
988:air-sea flux
978:
974:
959:
942:
940:
893:Bjerrum plot
886:
748:
728:
725:
721:
694:
384:
378:Martin curve
365:Carbon pumps
292:Calvin cycle
246:Black carbon
184:Total carbon
125:Geochemistry
66:Carbon cycle
38:
29:
1328:Orr, J. C.
1015:respiration
996:dissolution
781:bicarbonate
442:Carbon sink
405:Viral shunt
395:Marine snow
251:Blue carbon
105:Deep carbon
100:Atmospheric
90:Terrestrial
1353:Categories
1342:, 681-686.
1319:, 655-657.
1299:, 184-187.
1193:, 741-755.
1167:References
1136:Alkalinity
1038:combustion
962:alkalinity
936:alkalinity
701:solubility
415:Whale pump
410:Jelly pump
390:Lipid pump
115:Permafrost
83:By regions
1332:(2005).
868:↔
844:↔
817:↔
789:carbonate
1250:, 43-60.
1130:See also
1085:gigatons
1054:gigatons
919:itself,
897:seawater
656:Category
53:Overview
1218:Bibcode
947:(TIC, T
501:Wetland
473:Methane
256:Kerogen
157:Removal
32:oceanic
1337:Nature
1330:et al.
1313:Nature
1293:Nature
1077:et al.
1046:cement
994:, the
977:, and
960:Total
895:. In
787:) and
754:oxygen
654:
635:CO2SYS
496:Arctic
235:marine
95:Marine
43:carbon
37:, the
990:of CO
884:+ 2 H
630:C4MIP
578:Other
222:(PIC)
216:(POC)
210:(DIC)
204:(DOC)
198:(TIC)
192:(TOC)
1036:The
1004:CaCO
969:or A
954:or C
860:+ H
803:(aq)
783:(HCO
765:(aq)
714:The
699:The
186:(TC)
110:Soil
1340:437
1317:438
1297:408
1273:doi
1269:110
1226:doi
1095:.
1040:of
1002:of
980:pCO
973:),
967:ALK
958:),
856:HCO
805:+ H
791:(CO
779:),
767:),
703:of
45:as
30:In
1355::
1315:,
1295:,
1271:,
1267:,
1248:15
1224:.
1214:49
1212:.
1204:CO
1191:22
975:pH
965:(T
949:CO
938:.
932:Br
930:,
925:SO
923:,
921:Cl
913:Ca
911:,
909:Mg
907:,
903:,
901:Na
889:pH
880:CO
833:CO
809:O
798:CO
775:CO
771:(H
312:C4
307:C3
1279:.
1275::
1261:2
1232:.
1228::
1220::
1206:2
1185:.
1183:2
1120:2
1113:2
1101:2
1081:2
1066:2
1062:2
1058:2
1050:2
1031:2
1013:/
1006:3
998:/
992:2
982:2
971:T
956:T
951:2
927:4
917:3
905:K
882:3
858:3
835:3
831:2
829:H
807:2
800:2
793:3
785:3
777:3
773:2
762:2
684:e
677:t
670:v
25:2
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