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charges and prepares them for clarification either by settling or floating out of the water stream. Sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, removing smaller particulate matter. While other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the water supply through the supply network.
782:
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1563:, or an ε-constraint method. The weighted sum approach gives a certain weight to the different objectives, and then factors in all these weights to form a single objective function that can be solved by single factor optimization. This method is not entirely satisfactory, because the weights cannot be correctly chosen, so this approach cannot find the optimal solution for all the original objectives.
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1409:. Many people do not have any access, or do not have access to quality and quantity of potable water, though water itself is abundant. Poor people in developing countries can be close to major rivers, or be in high rainfall areas, yet not have access to potable water at all. There are also people living where lack of water creates millions of deaths every year.
1860:
Urban water infrastructure faces several challenges that undermine its sustainability and resilience. One critical issue highlighted in recent research is the vulnerability of water networks to climate variability and extreme weather events. Poor seasonal rains, as observed in the case of the Panama
1694:
Another method that can be utilized is through the promoting of community engagement and resistance against unsustainable water infrastructure projects. Grassroots movements, as observed in anti-dam protests in various countries, play a crucial role in challenging dominant development narratives and
1690:
One effective way to achieve sustainable water management is to shift emphasis towards decentralized water projects, such as drip irrigation diffusion in India. This project covers large spatial areas while relying on individual technological adoption decisions, offering scalable solutions that can
1848:
There is great need for a more sustainable water supply systems. To achieve sustainability several factors must be tackled at the same time: climate change, rising energy cost, and rising populations. All of these factors provoke change and put pressure on management of available water resources.
1584:
between the costs and benefits resulting in a set of solutions that can be used for sensitivity analysis and tested in different scenarios. But there is no single optimal solution that will satisfy the global optimality of both objectives. As both objectives are to some extent contradictory, it is
1058:
Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps: clarification, filtration and disinfection. Clarification refers to the separation of particles (dirt, organic matter, etc.) from the water stream. Chemical addition (i.e. alum, ferric chloride) destabilizes the particle
1864:
Another key challenge is the unequal development associated with large-scale water infrastructure projects such as dams and canals . Such projects, while aimed at promoting economic growth, often actually reproduce social and economic inequalities by displacing rural communities and marginalizing
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is to "Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all". This is in recognition of the human right to water and sanitation, which was formally acknowledged at the United
Nations General Assembly in 2010, that "clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to the
1264:
systems, history, and population density. Sometimes systems are designed for a specific area then are modified to accommodate development. Terrain affects hydraulics and some forms of telemetry. While each zone may operate as a stand-alone system, there is usually some arrangement to interconnect
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Municipalities and other forms of local governments should also invest in innovative technologies, such as membrane technology for wastewater recycling, and develop policy frameworks that incentivize eco-efficient practices. Municipal water reuse systems, as demonstrated in implementation, offer
1381:
lived in urban areas. In 2030 it is predicted that this statistic will rise to 60%. Attempts to expand water supply by governments are costly and often not sufficient. The building of new illegal settlements makes it hard to map, and make connections to, the water supply, and leads to inadequate
1509:
The yield of a system can be measured by either its value or its net benefit. For a water supply system, the true value or the net benefit is a reliable water supply service having adequate quantity and good quality of the product. For example, if the existing water supply of a city needs to be
1123:
The water in the supply network is maintained at positive pressure to ensure that water reaches all parts of the network, that a sufficient flow is available at every take-off point and to ensure that untreated water in the ground cannot enter the network. The water is typically pressurised by
1349:
The price of water is increasing, so less water must be wasted and actions must be taken to prevent pipeline leakage. Shutting down the supply service to fix leaks is less and less tolerated by consumers. A sustainable water supply network must monitor the freshwater consumption rate and the
1165:
As water passes through the distribution system, the water quality can degrade by chemical reactions and biological processes. Corrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects. Release of
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However, according to the authors of the paper entitled, “Method for optimizing design and rehabilitation of water distribution systems”, “the least capacity is not a desirable solution to a sustainable water supply network in a long term, due to the uncertainty of the future demand”. It is
1055:(EPA). Water treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards (when it is discharged again). Water purification usually occurs close to the final delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water becoming contaminated after treatment.
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preferable to provide extra pipe capacity to cope with unexpected demand growth and with water outages. The problem changes from a single objective optimization problem (minimizing cost), to a multi-objective optimization problem (minimizing cost and maximizing flow capacity).
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bodies, which always need short-term solutions too. Another obstacle to achieving sustainability in water supply systems is the insufficient practical experience with the technologies required, and the missing know-how about the organization and the transition process.
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The second approach (the constraint method), chooses one of the objective functions as the single objective, and the other objective functions are treated as constraints with a limited value. However, the optimal solution depends on the pre-defined constraint limits.
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and any other source of water. In most cases the water quality is unfit for human consumption. The principal cause of water scarcity is the growth in demand. Water is taken from remote areas to satisfy the needs of urban areas. Another reason for water scarcity is
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usage in all sectors of consumption. Developing sustainable water supply systems is a growing trend, because it serves people's long-term interests. There are several ways to reuse and recycle the water, in order to achieve long-term sustainability, such as:
1305:
systems improves water supply from sustainable perspectives. The development of innovative water technologies provides flexibility to the water supply system, generating a fundamental and effective means of sustainability based on an integrated
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coupled with effective strategies for operation and maintenance. These strategies must include effective management models, technical support to the householders and industries, sustainable financing mechanisms, and development of reliable
1605:
In order to optimize the operational performance of the water supply network, at the same time as minimizing the energy costs, it is necessary to predict the consequences of different pump and valve settings on the behavior of the network.
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network topology, or a combination of both. The piping networks are circular or rectangular. If any one section of water distribution main fails or needs repair, that section can be isolated without disrupting all users on the network.
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and poor and they respond to these problems with frequently changing policies and non clear agreements. Water demand exceeds supply, and household and industrial water supplies are prioritised over other uses, which leads to
1806:
is a good example of the new trend to overcome water supply problems. This statement, suggested by advanced economies, has come up with some principles that are of great significance to urban water supply. These are:
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In advanced economies, the problems are about optimising existing supply networks. These economies have usually had continuing evolution, which allowed them to construct infrastructure to supply water to people. The
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Returning to the cost objective function, it cannot violate any of the operational constraints. Generally this cost is dominated by the energy cost for pumping. “The operational constraints include the standards of
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is added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. Booster stations can be placed within the distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have adequate sustained levels of
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Canal's lock and dam infrastructure, exemplify how inadequate water supply can strain water-intensive infrastructure, raising questions about engineering legitimacy and the reliability of water systems.
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In an unsustainable system there is insufficient maintenance of the water networks, especially in the major pipe lines in urban areas. The system deteriorates and then needs rehabilitation or renewal.
1602:, such as: the minimum delivered pressure, in addition to the physical constraints such as the maximum and the minimum water levels in storage tanks to prevent overtopping and emptying respectively.”
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for a water supply network. A minimum cost model usually searches for the least cost solution (in pipe sizes), while satisfying the hydraulic constraints such as: required output pressures, maximum
1609:
Apart from Linear and Non-linear
Programming, there are other methods and approaches to design, to manage and operate a water supply network to achieve sustainability—for instance, the adoption of
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An obstacle to transforming conventional water supply systems, is the amount of time needed to achieve the transformation. More specifically, transformation must be implemented by municipal
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in some developing countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water supply system.
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indigenous populations. This phenomenon of "accumulation by dispossession" further emphasizes the need for more equitable and inclusive approaches to water infrastructure development.
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To solve a multi-objective optimization problem, it is necessary to convert the problem into a single objective optimization problem, by using adjustments, such as a weighted sum of
1735:. If this water is treated it can be used as a source of water for uses other than drinking. Depending on the type of gray water and its level of treatment, it can be re-used for
2338:
van der Steen, Peter. (2006). “Integrated Urban Water
Management: towards sustainability”. Environmental Resources Department. UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. SWITCH.
1817:
Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water. Institutional arrangements should reflect the role of women in water provision and protection.
2265:
Vairavamoorthy, Kala; Gorantiwar, Sunil D.; Pathirana, Assela (2008). "Managing urban water supplies in developing countries – Climate change and water scarcity scenarios".
1618:. All these measures must ensure the following: system working lifespan; maintenance cycle; continuity of functioning; down time for repairs; water yield and water quality.
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A pipe network for distribution of water to consumers (which may be private houses or industrial, commercial, or institution establishments) and other usage points (such as
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These systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments such as cities or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise (see
1493:
There are many international documents with interesting, but not very specific, ideas and therefore they are not put into practice. Recommendations have been made by the
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scheme for treated wastewater, on a municipal scale, to provide non-potable water for industry, household and municipal uses. This technology consists in separating the
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823:
1762:, soil treatment systems and plant filters. This process is ideal for gray water re-use, because of easier maintenance and higher removal rates of organic matter,
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recognition of all human rights". Sustainable water supply includes ensuring availability, accessibility, affordability and quality of water for all individuals.
1158:, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth, leakage, pressure, pipe size, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc.—using
1052:
1150:). Water supply networks are part of the master planning of communities, counties, and municipalities. Their planning and design requires the expertise of
2220:"Diagnóstico y análisis de los factores que influyen en la vulnerabilidad de las fuentes de abastecimiento de agua potable a la Ciudad de México, México"
1274:
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Utilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimize its corrosiveness. The simplest adjustment involves control of
2127:. UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme (United Nations). Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2006.
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The sustainable water supply system is an integrated system including water intake, water utilization, wastewater discharge and treatment and water
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Water supply networks usually represent the majority of assets of a water utility. Systematic documentation of maintenance works using a
1814:
Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels.
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The municipal government can develop a “Municipal Water Reuse System” which is a current approach to manage the rainwater. It applies a
1346:
To achieve a sustainable water supply network, new sources of water are needed to be developed, and to reduce environmental pollution.
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2583:
2069:"A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty"
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Virtually all large systems must treat the water; a fact that is tightly regulated by global, state and federal agencies, such as the
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not possible to improve one objective without sacrificing the other. It is necessary in some cases use a different approach. (e.g.
1514:, the impact of the new branch of the system must be designed to supply the new needs, while maintaining supply to the old system.
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are gained through systematic separation of rainfall and wastewater. Membrane technology can be used for recycling wastewater.
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in hydro-metallurgical processes, for cooling, for scrubbing in the iron and the steel industry, and for several operations in
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is not well distributed in the world. 1.8 million deaths are attributed to unsafe water supplies every year, according to the
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pumping the water into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network. One network may have several such
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The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground
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may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or aboveground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity flow is impractical).
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From these statements, developed in 1992, several policies have been created to give importance to water and to move urban
936:. Tall buildings may also need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors.
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problem consists of finding a minimum cost solution by optimising pipe sizes to provide the minimum acceptable capacity.
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Qiang, He. Li Zhai Jun, Huang. “Application of
Sustainable Water System the Demonstration in Chengdu (China)”. (2008).
2351:. Zheng Y. Wu, Thomas M. Walski, Robert F. Mankowski, Gregg A. Herrin, Wayne R. Hartell, Jonathan DeCarlo. 2003-03-04.
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Maintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution. Typically, a chlorine based
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Other possible approaches to scoping models for water supply, applicable to any urban area, include the following:
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is of increasing importance for the water supply to urban areas. Incorporating innovative water technologies into
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2479:"The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements"
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are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. Common corrosion inhibitors added to the water are
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Most systems are divided into zones. Factors determining the extent or size of a zone can include hydraulics,
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Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment.
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Craddock
Consulting Engineering. “Recycling treated municipal wastewater for industrial water use”. (2007).
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Ecological treatment systems use little energy: there are many applications in gray water re-use, such as
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MartĂnez, Fernando; Hernández, Vicente; Alonso, JosĂ© Miguel; Rao, Zhengfu; Alvisi, Stefano (2007-01-01).
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promising avenues for integrating wastewater treatment and resource recovery into urban water networks.
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for human existence. It is needed in every industrial and natural process, for example, it is used for
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DCMMS: A web-based GIS application to record maintenance activities for water and wastewater networks.
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plants can both make the water supply networks more efficient and sustainable. Major improvements in
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2522:"Geographies of big water infrastructure: Contemporary insights and future research oppurtunities"
2447:"Geographies of big water infrastructure: Contemporary insights and future research oppurtunities"
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are expected in the forthcoming decades and environmental regulations for water utilization and
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from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of "red water" at the tap. Release of
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The design of a system is governed by multiple criteria, one being cost. If the benefit is
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A sustainable urban water supply network covers all the activities related to provision of
48:
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design results in maximum benefit. However, the least cost approach normally results in a
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by putting a higher price on water, which imposes a barrier for lower-income people. The
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Like electric power lines, roads, and microwave radio networks, water systems may have a
1193:. Copper and lead levels at the consumer's tap are regulated to protect consumer health.
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rate and pipe flow velocities. The cost is a function of pipe diameters; therefore the
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1139:(the latter however does need additional pressurizing). This eliminates the need of a
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17:
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Possible ways to improve this situation is simulating of the network, implementing
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can result in customer reports of "blue water" and/or a metallic taste. Release of
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Pressurizing the water is required between the small water reserve and the end-user
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and toilet flushing. According to an investigation about the impacts of domestic
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fraction is collected, together with organic wastes from the households, using a
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has developed a set of rules and policies to overcome expected future problems.
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collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such as a
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64:
2349:"Method for optimizing design and rehabilitation of water distribution systems"
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advocating for more socially and ecologically just water management practices.
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In 1900 just 13% of the global population lived in cities. By 2005, 49% of the
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It is necessary to adopt a new approach to design urban water supply networks;
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to produce a water that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of
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Improving water network management by efficient division into supply clusters
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Most (treated) water distribution happens through underground pipes known as
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reuse on public health, carried out by the New South Wales Health Centre in
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Where the water supply system cannot reach the slums, people manage to use
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Escolero, O., Kralisch, S., MartĂnez, S.E., Perevochtchikova, M. (2016).
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is a good example of what has been created there out of former policies.
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water management. In 2002, there were 158 million people with inadequate
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2324:
Solon, Pablo (28 July 2010). "The Human Right to Water and
Sanitation".
27:
System of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components providing water
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in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good.
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International
Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO)
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2392:"Optimizing the operation of the Valencia water-distribution network"
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fraction of sanitary wastewater, and collecting it for recycling its
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77:
1675:, continuously flushed with non-potable water. The water is treated
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or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure.
2046:(Tesis doctoral). PhD thesis, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia.
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The multiple objective optimization problems involve computing the
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1994:
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1462:. Potable water has a price in the market; water often becomes a
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1755:, and the organic content of grey water decomposes more rapidly.
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zones in order to manage equipment failures or system failures.
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An open-source hydraulic toolbox for water distribution systems
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mitigate water scarcity and enhance agricultural productivity.
1872:, learning from the costs involved and the benefits achieved.
1277:(CMMS) is a key to a successful operation of a water utility.
1112:
The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called
748:
102:
1131:
In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a
891:. Raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level
2561:
1197:
856:. A water supply system typically includes the following:
1437:
patterns have changed; rivers have decreased their flow;
2503:
Developing a New
Scoping Model for Urban Sustainability
2477:
International
Conference on Water and the Environment.
1804:
Dublin
Statement on Water and Sustainable Development
1499:
Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development
2301:"Goal 6 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs"
3683:
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3617:
3562:
3524:
3443:
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30:"Water system" redirects here. For other uses, see
2101:"World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision"
1633:Sustainable development in an urban water network
939:Additional water pressurizing components such as
1832:management towards sustainable development. The
1289:Clean drinking water is essential to human life.
2267:Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C
2195:"Water, sanitation and hygiene links to health"
928:. Smaller water systems may store the water in
909:facilities. Treated water is transferred using
1077:Typical urban water cycle in the United States
866:water purification – sources of drinking water
2577:
1453:In developing countries many governments are
1053:United States Environmental Protection Agency
817:
8:
2250:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1747:in the year 2000, grey water contains less
1353:Many of the urban water supply networks in
2584:
2570:
2562:
2067:Zhang, Stephen X, Babovic, Vladan (2012).
1275:computerized maintenance management system
1186:used to join copper pipe together or from
1120:standards required for human consumption.
824:
810:
36:
2407:
2235:
2224:BoletĂn de la Sociedad GeolĂłgica Mexicana
2084:
2051:
1386:. An increasing number of people live in
977:Water abstraction and raw water transfer
3639:Plumbing & Drainage Institute (PDI)
2028:
965:Water supply networks are often run by
592:
539:
386:
238:
70:
39:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2365:
2354:
2243:
2148:
2440:
2438:
2436:
1798:A more user-friendly indoor water use
1343:disposal are increasingly stringent.
7:
3589:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
2125:Water : a shared responsibility
1751:and fecal pathogenic organisms than
1589:), and choose the best combination.
1466:for private companies, which earn a
1505:Optimizing the water supply network
957:(underground pipes, or aboveground
25:
2909:Push-to-pull compression fittings
1719:Gray water re-use and treatment:
916:Water storage facilities such as
903:to water purification facilities.
1882:
1087:Central Arizona Project Aqueduct
791:
781:
780:
47:
2326:United Nations General Assembly
998:source (such as an intake on a
754:Spanish autovias and autopistas
2557:Water supply network schematic
1477:Goal 6 of the United Nations'
1474:propose the changes required.
1281:Sustainable urban water supply
1:
1789:Intercluster groundwater flow
1518:Single-objective optimization
1479:Sustainable Development Goals
1350:waste-water generation rate.
764:Power transmission in the USA
615:Brazilian energy independence
276:European green infrastructure
32:Water system (disambiguation)
3649:World Plumbing Council (WPC)
3200:Reduced pressure zone device
2520:Birkenholtz, Trevor (2023).
2445:Birkenholtz, Trevor (2023).
1546:Multi-objective optimization
1472:Millennium Development Goals
1014:drawing from an underground
504:Transit-oriented development
3757:Water supply infrastructure
3644:Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC)
3363:Instant hot water dispenser
3165:Piping and plumbing fitting
2396:Journal of Hydroinformatics
2073:Journal of Hydroinformatics
1779:Sustainable drainage system
664:British offshore wind-power
3773:
2990:Backflow prevention device
2975:Atmospheric vacuum breaker
2053:10.4995/Thesis/10251/11233
1980:Backflow prevention device
1792:Canal and river extraction
1723:is wastewater coming from
1416:, to reach the pit wells,
1066:
1063:Water distribution network
1040:
980:
844:is a system of engineered
326:Public–private partnership
29:
3747:Environmental engineering
3250:Thermostatic mixing valve
2526:Geography Compass Journal
2501:Last, Ewan. Mackay, Rae.
2451:Geography Compass Journal
2287:10.1016/j.pce.2008.02.008
1923:Hydrological optimization
1834:Water Framework Directive
1510:extended to supply a new
1357:face problems related to
1269:Water network maintenance
1089:transfers untreated water
1069:Water distribution system
1049:World Health Organization
759:Transcontinental Railroad
640:Curtiba rapid bus transit
2980:Automatic bleeding valve
2619:Compatibility (chemical)
2237:10.18268/BSGM2016v68n3a3
2036:Herrera, Manuel (2011).
1908:Conduit hydroelectricity
1704:environmental protection
1326:liquid-liquid extraction
852:components that provide
729:San Francisco Bay Bridge
3185:Pressure-balanced valve
3180:Pressure vacuum breaker
2889:Pipe (fluid conveyance)
2831:Drain-waste-vent system
2811:Chemical drain cleaners
1973:Automatic meter reading
1706:. It requires reducing
1622:Sustainable development
1593:Operational constraints
1367:environmental pollution
1299:Sustainable development
744:Spanish high-speed rail
684:Hong Kong Int'l Airport
669:Nuclear power in France
635:China's high-speed rail
610:Bicycle parking station
98:Critical infrastructure
3706:Template:Public health
3378:water recycling shower
3348:Hot water storage tank
2679:Onsite sewage facility
2409:10.2166/hydro.2006.018
2364:Cite journal requires
2155:: CS1 maint: others (
2086:10.2166/hydro.2011.078
1634:
1611:appropriate technology
1290:
1109:
1101:
1090:
1078:
994:(untreated) is from a
913:(usually underground).
798:Engineering portal
674:Solar power in Germany
645:Cycling infrastructure
562:Mechanical engineering
256:Build–operate–transfer
3691:Fire sprinkler system
3400:Tankless water heater
3343:Garbage disposal unit
3328:Electric water boiler
2800:British Standard Pipe
1913:Domestic water system
1632:
1567:The constraint method
1288:
1160:pipe network analysis
1107:
1096:
1084:
1076:
600:Trans-Alaska pipeline
356:Replacement (upgrade)
306:Life-cycle assessment
286:Engineering contracts
3390:Storage water heater
2959:Water heat recycling
2867:National Pipe Thread
2769:Water supply network
2483:www.un-documents.net
1576:Sensitivity analysis
1355:developing countries
1210:Corrosion inhibitors
987:Water transportation
838:water supply network
704:Kansai Int'l Airport
595:Akashi KaikyĹŤ Bridge
547:Chemical engineering
449:Mobile data terminal
301:Green infrastructure
18:Water infrastructure
3721:Template:Wastewater
3579:Hydrostatic testing
3220:Rooftop water tower
2816:Compression fitting
2375:CS1 maint: others (
2279:2008PCE....33..330V
1838:European Commission
1555:Weighted sum method
1449:Governmental issues
1445:are being emptied.
1441:are drying up; and
1359:population increase
1229:sodium hypochlorite
1182:can occur from the
1148:water privatization
1137:underground cistern
953:Connections to the
889:underground aquifer
842:water supply system
694:Interstate highways
524:Wireless technology
389:Air traffic control
3675:Waterborne disease
3574:Hydronic balancing
3333:Evaporative cooler
3298:Accessible bathtub
3195:Radiator (heating)
3175:Pressure regulator
3070:Double check valve
3045:Concentric reducer
2846:Garden Hose Thread
2739:Thermal insulation
2609:Air gap (plumbing)
1918:Hardy Cross method
1635:
1291:
1126:service reservoirs
1110:
1102:
1091:
1079:
1022:that provides the
1010:source (such as a
907:Water purification
714:Offshore wind port
630:Chicago wastewater
499:Traffic congestion
409:Congestion pricing
148:Pipeline transport
128:Irrigation schemes
93:Coastal management
3729:
3728:
3711:Template:Sewerage
3658:Health and safety
3634:NSF International
3444:Specialized tools
3323:Drinking fountain
3290:Plumbing fixtures
3170:Plug (sanitation)
3155:Nipple (plumbing)
3075:Eccentric reducer
3055:Coupling (piping)
3020:Chemigation valve
2873:Nominal Pipe Size
2836:Ductile iron pipe
2734:Thermal expansion
1903:Civil engineering
1844:Future approaches
1685:energy production
1637:Householders and
1379:global population
1373:Population growth
1206:calcium carbonate
1162:and other tools.
983:Water abstraction
899:, or underground
834:
833:
699:Jamnagar Refinery
689:Intercity Express
659:Danish wind-power
459:Rapid bus transit
444:Land-use planning
208:Telecommunication
16:(Redirected from
3764:
3716:Template:Toilets
3481:Flare-nut wrench
3240:Submersible pump
3065:Dielectric union
2985:Automatic faucet
2944:Thread seal tape
2904:Plastic pipework
2664:Hydrostatic loop
2629:Drain (plumbing)
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1639:sewage treatment
1600:customer service
1532:minimum capacity
1318:natural resource
1316:is an essential
1116:if it meets the
967:public utilities
941:pumping stations
934:pressure vessels
826:
819:
812:
796:
795:
784:
783:
734:Three Gorges Dam
724:Port of Shanghai
567:Public economics
404:Containerization
399:Carbon footprint
383:Issues and ideas
261:Design–bid–build
241:Asset management
188:Sewage treatment
54:Grand Coulee Dam
51:
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3526:
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3496:Plumber's snake
3439:
3420:Water dispenser
3410:Washing machine
3284:
3110:Flushing trough
3060:Diaphragm valve
3050:Condensate pump
3030:Circulator pump
3010:Butterfly valve
2963:
2934:Solvent welding
2826:Crimp (joining)
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2749:Trap (plumbing)
2724:Surface tension
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2177:
2171:"Reports | JMP"
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2030:
2025:
2010:Water resources
1888:
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1878:
1846:
1795:Aquifer storage
1766:, nitrogen and
1624:
1595:
1587:Pareto Analysis
1578:
1569:
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1548:
1520:
1507:
1451:
1400:
1375:
1337:water shortages
1330:food processing
1283:
1271:
1246:
1156:civil engineers
1133:pressure vessel
1071:
1065:
1045:
1043:Water treatment
1039:
1037:Water treatment
989:
981:Main articles:
979:
830:
790:
773:
749:French TGV rail
620:Brooklyn Bridge
591:
590:
581:
538:
537:
536:Fields of study
528:
514:Waste-to-energy
509:Fuel efficiency
474:Reverse osmosis
439:Hybrid vehicles
434:High-speed rail
385:
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296:Government debt
237:
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118:Hazardous waste
69:
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3742:Water industry
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3623:
3620:organizations
3615:
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3606:
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3596:
3591:
3586:
3584:Leak detection
3581:
3576:
3570:
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3560:
3559:
3557:
3556:
3554:Water metering
3551:
3549:Water detector
3546:
3541:
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3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3501:Plumber wrench
3498:
3493:
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3478:
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3463:
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3435:Water softener
3432:
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3265:Vacuum ejector
3262:
3260:Vacuum breaker
3257:
3252:
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2924:Sewage pumping
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2862:Leak detection
2859:
2854:
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2806:Cast iron pipe
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2754:Venturi effect
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2541:External links
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2382:
2366:|journal=
2340:
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2273:(5): 330–339.
2257:
2230:(3): 409–427.
2226:(in Spanish).
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1495:United Nations
1488:European Union
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1431:climate change
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1363:water scarcity
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1233:monochloramine
1135:or even by an
1067:Main article:
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1041:Main article:
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1024:water resource
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3258:
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3208:
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3166:
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3158:
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3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3140:Hose coupling
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
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3098:
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3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3040:Closet flange
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2949:Threaded pipe
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
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2912:
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2907:
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2887:
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2877:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2841:Flare fitting
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2821:Copper tubing
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
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2700:
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2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2649:Grade (slope)
2647:
2645:
2644:Friction loss
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2598:
2594:
2587:
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2568:
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2564:
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2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2498:
2495:
2484:
2480:
2473:
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2464:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2371:
2358:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2335:
2332:
2327:
2320:
2317:
2306:
2302:
2296:
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2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2211:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2176:
2172:
2166:
2163:
2158:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2126:
2120:
2117:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2093:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2060:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2040:
2032:
2029:
2022:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2005:Water quality
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
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1956:
1955:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
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1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
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1911:
1909:
1906:
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1901:
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1891:
1885:
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1875:
1873:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1850:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1823:
1820:Water has an
1819:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
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1775:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1754:
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1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1677:anaerobically
1674:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1616:supply chains
1612:
1607:
1603:
1601:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1583:
1575:
1573:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1554:
1552:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1517:
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1513:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1489:
1483:
1480:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1435:precipitation
1432:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1403:Potable water
1397:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1287:
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1278:
1276:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1152:city planners
1149:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1121:
1119:
1118:water quality
1115:
1114:potable water
1106:
1100:
1095:
1088:
1083:
1075:
1070:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1051:(WHO) or the
1050:
1044:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1018:) within the
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
996:surface water
993:
988:
984:
976:
974:
972:
968:
960:
956:
952:
949:
948:fire hydrants
945:
942:
938:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
912:
908:
905:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
867:
863:
859:
858:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
827:
822:
820:
815:
813:
808:
807:
805:
804:
799:
794:
789:
787:
779:
778:
777:
776:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
654:
650:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
585:
584:
578:
575:
573:
572:Public policy
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
532:
531:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
379:
378:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
346:Public sector
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
246:Appropriation
244:
242:
239:
231:
230:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
173:Public spaces
171:
169:
168:State schools
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
66:
60:
59:
55:
50:
46:
45:
42:
38:
33:
19:
3594:Pipe marking
3567:and services
3563:Professions,
3511:Strap wrench
3451:Basin wrench
3430:Water heater
3425:Water filter
3338:Flush toilet
3313:Dehumidifier
3255:Trench drain
3235:Street elbow
3225:Safety valve
3210:Relief valve
3150:Needle valve
3135:Grinder pump
3105:Flow limiter
3090:Float switch
3025:Chopper pump
3005:Booster pump
2954:Tube bending
2899:Pipe support
2768:
2764:Water hammer
2744:Thermosiphon
2674:Neutral axis
2529:
2525:
2502:
2497:
2486:. Retrieved
2482:
2472:
2463:
2454:
2450:
2426:
2402:(1): 65–78.
2399:
2395:
2385:
2357:cite journal
2343:
2334:
2325:
2319:
2308:. Retrieved
2304:
2295:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2246:cite journal
2227:
2223:
2213:
2202:. Retrieved
2198:
2189:
2178:. Retrieved
2175:washdata.org
2174:
2165:
2124:
2119:
2108:. Retrieved
2104:
2095:
2079:(1): 13–29.
2076:
2072:
2062:
2043:
2038:
2031:
2015:Water supply
1985:Fire hydrant
1890:Water portal
1867:
1863:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1830:water system
1827:
1801:
1773:
1731:, sinks and
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1683:is used for
1673:sewer system
1647:
1636:
1625:
1608:
1604:
1596:
1579:
1570:
1558:
1549:
1540:optimization
1531:
1523:
1521:
1512:municipality
1508:
1492:
1484:
1476:
1460:water stress
1452:
1411:
1401:
1384:water supply
1376:
1352:
1348:
1345:
1334:
1332:facilities.
1322:oil refining
1312:
1308:real options
1303:water supply
1292:
1272:
1259:
1247:
1238:disinfection
1225:disinfectant
1222:
1195:
1176:copper pipes
1164:
1145:
1130:
1122:
1111:
1057:
1046:
1028:
1006:) or from a
990:
964:
926:water towers
854:water supply
841:
837:
835:
719:Panama Canal
542:Architecture
494:Urban sprawl
484:Smart growth
419:Ethanol fuel
366:Supply chain
321:Property tax
266:Design–build
218:Water supply
217:
158:Mass transit
3539:Flow sensor
3527:and control
3525:Measurement
3516:Tap and die
3491:Pipe wrench
3476:Driving cap
3368:Laundry tub
3245:Tap (valve)
3230:Sewage pump
3215:Riser clamp
3160:Pinch valve
3130:Grease trap
3125:Globe valve
3115:Flushometer
3100:Floor drain
3095:Float valve
3015:Check valve
3000:Bleed screw
2774:Water table
2714:Storm sewer
2600:Fundamental
2505:. (2007).
2305:sdgs.un.org
2000:Water tower
1963:Water meter
1958:Water pipes
1854:legislation
1712:groundwater
1650:water reuse
1341:waste-water
1141:water tower
1099:water mains
1031:water pipes
1008:groundwater
922:water tanks
911:water pipes
901:water pipes
885:groundwater
454:Pork barrel
429:Groundwater
341:Public good
311:Maintenance
291:Externality
251:Lindahl tax
203:Solid waste
138:Lighthouses
108:Electricity
3752:Hydraulics
3736:Categories
3599:Pipefitter
3486:Pipecutter
3466:Core drill
3353:Humidifier
3318:Dishwasher
3280:Zone valve
3275:Water tank
3120:Gate valve
2995:Ball valve
2968:Components
2788:Technology
2759:Wastewater
2719:Stormwater
2488:2018-02-26
2310:2020-11-20
2204:2018-02-26
2180:2018-02-26
2134:9231040065
2110:2018-02-26
2105:www.un.org
2023:References
1968:Water well
1786:extraction
1768:phosphorus
1741:grey water
1737:irrigation
1733:washbasins
1721:gray water
1708:freshwater
1561:objectives
1528:least cost
1414:hand pumps
1310:approach.
1244:Topologies
1227:, such as
1214:phosphates
1202:alkalinity
1012:water well
918:reservoirs
895:, covered
846:hydrologic
739:Shinkansen
679:Hoover Dam
557:Electrical
489:Stormwater
479:Smart grid
469:Renewables
394:Brownfield
351:Renovation
281:Fixed cost
3618:Industry
3604:Pipelayer
3461:Borescope
3456:Blowtorch
3395:Sump pump
2929:Soldering
2894:Pipe dope
2857:Hydronics
2729:Tap water
2694:Sewer gas
2659:Heat trap
2654:Greywater
2624:Corrosion
2418:1464-7141
2151:cite book
1990:Strainers
1948:Tap water
1928:Hydrology
1760:reed beds
1745:Australia
1666:graywater
1658:nutrients
1536:pipe flow
1262:telemetry
1218:silicates
1020:watershed
992:Raw water
893:aqueducts
873:raw water
850:hydraulic
769:Wind farm
464:Recycling
361:Spillover
213:Utilities
123:Hospitals
83:Broadband
3684:See also
3670:Scalding
3358:Icemaker
3145:Manifold
2704:Sewerage
2684:Pressure
2639:Fuel gas
2614:Backflow
2602:concepts
2593:Plumbing
2143:69021428
1938:Plumbing
1898:Aqueduct
1876:See also
1784:Borehole
1749:nitrogen
1679:and the
1582:tradeoff
1464:business
1443:aquifers
1191:fixtures
930:cisterns
887:from an
786:Category
605:Autobahn
589:Examples
424:Fuel tax
371:Taxation
316:Monopoly
235:Concepts
193:Sewerage
73:Airports
3609:Plumber
3565:trades,
3506:Plunger
3415:Washlet
3303:Bathtub
3205:Reducer
3035:Cistern
2939:Swaging
2919:Sealant
2795:Brazing
2275:Bibcode
1836:by the
1764:ammonia
1729:showers
1670:gravity
1455:corrupt
1392:disease
1297:water.
1295:potable
1016:aquifer
969:of the
959:ditches
897:tunnels
649:history
271:Earmark
198:Sluices
78:Bridges
3696:Piping
3405:Urinal
3373:Shower
2879:O-ring
2852:Gasket
2709:Siphon
2699:Sewage
2416:
2141:
2131:
2044:Riunet
1753:sewage
1681:biogas
1660:. The
1526:, the
1468:profit
1426:swamps
1422:canals
1418:rivers
1365:, and
1324:, for
1254:branch
1184:solder
1172:copper
955:sewers
653:safety
414:Ecotax
133:Levees
113:Energy
88:Canals
65:Assets
3308:Bidet
3270:Valve
2914:Putty
2884:Oakum
2875:(NPS)
2869:(NPT)
2848:(GHT)
2802:(BSP)
1995:Valve
1953:Water
1943:River
1725:baths
1662:feces
1654:urine
1524:fixed
1439:lakes
1388:slums
1314:Water
1188:brass
1174:from
1004:river
1002:or a
924:, or
883:, or
881:river
864:(see
709:Levee
552:Civil
223:Weirs
183:Roads
153:Ports
143:Parks
3385:Sink
3190:Pump
2779:Well
2669:Leak
2532:(8).
2457:(8).
2414:ISSN
2377:link
2370:help
2252:link
2157:link
2139:OCLC
2129:ISBN
1802:The
1710:and
1664:and
1250:loop
1216:and
1200:and
1180:lead
1168:iron
1154:and
1085:The
1000:lake
985:and
879:, a
877:lake
848:and
178:Rail
103:Dams
2404:doi
2283:doi
2232:doi
2199:WHO
2081:doi
2048:doi
1407:WHO
1252:or
1231:or
932:or
840:or
655:)
3738::
2530:17
2528:.
2524:.
2510:^
2481:.
2455:17
2453:.
2449:.
2435:^
2412:.
2398:.
2394:.
2361::
2359:}}
2355:{{
2303:.
2281:.
2271:33
2269:.
2248:}}
2244:{{
2228:68
2222:.
2197:.
2173:.
2153:}}
2149:{{
2137:.
2103:.
2077:14
2075:.
2071:.
2042:.
1727:,
1687:.
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