Keratoconus - Knowledge (XXG)

725: 1149: 408: 1188: 716:, in which an automated instrument projects the illuminated pattern onto the cornea and determines its topography from analysis of the digital image. The topographical map indicates any distortions or scarring in the cornea, with keratoconus revealed by a characteristic steepening of curvature that is usually below the centerline of the eye. The technique can record a snapshot of the degree and extent of the deformation as a benchmark for assessing its rate of progression. It is of particular value in detecting the disorder in its early stages when other signs have not yet presented. 243:. As the disease progresses, special contact lenses (such as scleral contact lenses) may be required. In most people the disease stabilizes after a few years without severe vision problems. In 2016, the FDA approved corneal collagen cross-linking to halt the progression of keratoconus. In some cases when the cornea becomes dangerously thin or when sufficient vision can no longer be achieved by contact lenses due to steepening of the cornea, scarring or lens intolerance, corneal cross-linking is not an option and a corneal transplant may be required. 428:. As the two come into contact, cellular and structural changes in the cornea adversely affect its integrity and lead to the bulging and scarring characteristic of the disorder. Within any individual keratoconic cornea, regions of degenerative thinning coexisting with regions undergoing wound healing may be found. Scarring appears to be an aspect of the corneal degradation; however, a recent, large, multicenter study suggests abrasion by contact lenses may increase the likelihood of this finding by a factor over two. 597: 51: 463:, the damage caused by activity within the cornea likely results in a reduction in its thickness and biomechanical strength. At an ultrastructural level the weakening of the corneal tissue is associated with a disruption of the regular arrangement of the collagen layers and collagen fibril orientation. While keratoconus is considered a noninflammatory disorder, one study shows wearing rigid contact lenses by people leads to overexpression of proinflammatory 1168:, and are diagnosed by the late teenage years or early 20s. The disease can, however, present or progress at any age; in rare cases, keratoconus can present in children or not until later adulthood. A diagnosis of the disease at an early age may indicate a greater risk of severity in later life. Patients' vision will seem to fluctuate over a period of months, driving them to change lens prescriptions frequently, but as the condition worsens, 1071: 924: 973: 965: 328: 1258: 586: 274: 868: 1245:. A long-term study found a mean incidence rate of 2.0 new cases per 100,000 population per year. Some studies have suggested a higher prevalence amongst females, or that people of South Asian ethnicity are 4.4 times as likely to develop keratoconus as Caucasians, and are also more likely to be affected with the condition earlier. 660:, in which a light beam is focused on the person's retina and the reflection, or reflex, observed as the examiner tilts the light source back and forth. Keratoconus is amongst the ophthalmic conditions that exhibit a scissor reflex action of two bands moving toward and away from each other like the blades of a pair of 1021:

after the surgery, but even if the actual visual acuity does not improve, because the cornea is a more normal shape after the healing is completed, people can more easily be fitted with corrective lenses. Complications of corneal transplants are mostly related to vascularization of the corneal tissue and

356:. The visual distortion experienced by the person comes from two sources, one being the irregular deformation of the surface of the cornea, and the other being scarring that occurs on its exposed highpoints. These factors act to form regions on the cornea that map an image to different locations on the 1248:

Keratoconus is normally bilateral (affecting both eyes) although the distortion is usually asymmetric and is rarely completely identical in both corneas. Unilateral cases tend to be uncommon, and may in fact be very rare if a very mild condition in the better eye is simply below the limit of clinical

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Some people find good vision correction and comfort with a "piggyback" lens combination, in which RGP lenses are worn over soft lenses, both providing a degree of vision correction. One form of piggyback lens makes use of a soft lens with a countersunk central area to accept the rigid lens. Fitting a

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Despite considerable research, the cause of keratoconus remains unclear. Several sources suggest that keratoconus likely arises from a number of different factors: genetic, environmental or cellular, any of which may form the trigger for the onset of the disease. Once initiated, the disease normally

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are required in the majority of cases. The course of the disorder can be quite variable, with some patients remaining stable for years or indefinitely, while others progress rapidly or experience occasional exacerbations over a long and otherwise steady course. Most commonly, keratoconus progresses

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Rarely, a nonpenetrating keratoplasty known as an epikeratophakia (or epikeratoplasty) may be performed in cases of keratoconus. The corneal epithelium is removed and a lenticule of donor cornea is grafted on top of it. The procedure requires a greater level of skill on the part of the surgeon, and

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manufactured a glass scleral shell that improved vision by compressing the cornea into a more regular shape. Since the start of the 20th century, research on keratoconus has both improved understanding of the disease and greatly expanded the range of treatment options. The first successful corneal

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reports that penetrating keratoplasty has the most successful outcome of all transplant procedures, and when performed for keratoconus in an otherwise healthy eye, its success rate can be 95% or greater. The sutures used usually dissolve over a period of three to five years, but individual sutures

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field, such as a point of light on a dark background. Instead of seeing just one point, a person with keratoconus sees many images of the point, spread out in a chaotic pattern. This pattern does not typically change from day to day, but over time, it often takes on new forms. People also commonly

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donor tissue. The freeze-drying process ensures this tissue is dead, so there is no chance of rejection. Research from two trials in Iran provide low to moderate evidence that graft rejection is more likely to occur in penetrating keratoplasty than in DALK, though the likelihood for graft failure

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and other similar procedures. LASIK is absolutely contraindicated in keratoconus and other corneal thinning conditions as removal of corneal stromal tissue will further damage an already thin and weak cornea. For similar reasons, radial keratotomy has also generally not been used for people with

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approved cross-linking surgery as a treatment for keratoconus and recommended that a registry system should be set-up to evaluate the long-term treatment effect. The Save Sight Keratoconus Registry is an international database of keratoconus patients that is tracking outcomes of cross-linking in

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surgery. In other countries, such as Australia and the UK, the operation is commonly performed with the person undergoing a general anaesthetic. All cases require a careful follow-up with an eye doctor (ophthalmologist or optometrist) for a number of years. Frequently, vision is greatly improved

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Between 11% and 27% of cases of keratoconus will progress to a point where vision correction is no longer possible, thinning of the cornea becomes excessive, or scarring as a result of contact lens wear causes problems of its own, and a corneal transplantation or penetrating keratoplasty becomes

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before the incision is closed by a suture. The segments push out against the curvature of the cornea, flattening the peak of the cone and returning it to a more natural shape. The procedure offers the benefit of being reversible and even potentially exchangeable as it involves no removal of eye

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is very rare, though difficult-to-correct vision is possible. When rejection is severe, repeat transplants are often attempted, and are frequently successful. Keratoconus will not normally reoccur in the transplanted cornea; incidences of this have been observed, but are usually attributed to

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in identical twins. The frequency of occurrence in close family members is not clearly defined, though it is known to be considerably higher than that in the general population, and studies have obtained estimates ranging between 6% and 19%. Two studies involving isolated, largely homogenetic

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lenses and, most recently, silicone hydrogel lenses. A soft lens has a tendency to conform to the conical shape of the cornea, thus diminishing its effect. To counter this, hybrid lenses have been developed that are hard in the centre and encompassed by a soft skirt. However, soft or earlier

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conditions of the cornea, and contact lens fitters who have experience managing people with keratoconus. The irregular cone presents a challenge and the fitter will endeavor to produce a lens with the optimal contact, stability and steepness. Some trial-and-error fitting may prove necessary.

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filling the gap between the irregular corneal surface and the smooth regular inner surface of the lens, thereby creating the effect of a smoother cornea. Many specialized types of contact lenses have been developed for keratoconus, and affected people may seek out both doctors specialized in

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have been shown to influence corneal biomechanics and tissue remodeling, potentially affecting the integrity of the cornea in individuals predisposed to keratoconus. Moreover, fluctuations in hormonal levels during puberty and pregnancy have been associated with the onset or exacerbation of

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Krumeich JH, Daniel J (August 1997). "Lebend-Epikeratophakie und Tiefe Lamelläre Keratoplastik zur Stadiengerechten chirurgischen Behandlung des Keratokonus (KK) I-III" [Live epikeratophakia and deep lamellar keratoplasty for I-III stage-specific surgical treatment of keratoconus].

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generation hybrid lenses did not prove effective for every person. Early generation lenses have been discontinued. The fourth generation of hybrid lens technology has improved, giving more people an option that combines the comfort of a soft lens with the visual acuity of an RGP lens.

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According to the findings of the Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Keratoconus (CLEK), people who have keratoconus could be expected to pay more than $ 25,000 over their lifetime post-diagnosis, with a standard deviation of $ 19,396. There is limited evidence on the costs of

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Posterior keratoconus, a distinct disorder despite its similar name, is a rare abnormality, usually congenital, which causes a nonprogressive thinning of the inner surface of the cornea, while the curvature of the anterior surface remains normal. Usually only a single eye is

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incomplete excision of the original cornea or inadequate screening of the donor tissue. The long-term outlook for corneal transplants performed for keratoconus is usually favorable once the initial healing period is completed and a few years have elapsed without problems.

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Keratoconus affects about 1 in 2,000 people. However, some estimates suggest that the incidence may be as high as 1 in 400 individuals. It occurs most commonly in late childhood to early adulthood. While it occurs in all populations, it may be more frequent in certain

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causes thinning of a narrow (1–2 mm) band of the cornea, usually along the inferior corneal margin. It causes irregular astigmatism that, in the early stages of the disease can be corrected by spectacles. Differential diagnosis may be made by slit-lamp

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solution. Although a hydrops usually causes increased scarring of the cornea, occasionally it will benefit a patient by creating a flatter cone, aiding the fitting of contact lenses. Corneal transplantation is not usually indicated during corneal hydrops.

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examination of the cornea. An advanced case is usually readily apparent to the examiner, and can provide for an unambiguous diagnosis prior to more specialized testing. Under close examination, a ring of yellow-brown to olive-green pigmentation known as a

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Scleral lenses are sometimes prescribed for cases of advanced or very irregular keratoconus; these lenses cover a greater proportion of the surface of the eye and hence can offer improved stability. Easier handling can find favor with people with reduced

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can suffice to correct for the mild astigmatism. As the condition progresses, these may no longer provide the person with a satisfactory degree of visual acuity, and most practitioners will move to manage the condition with rigid contact lenses, known as

232:. Diagnosis is most often by topography. Topography measures the curvature of the cornea and creates a colored "map" of the cornea. Keratoconus causes very distinctive changes in the appearance of these maps, which allows doctors to make the diagnosis. 1240:

populations, ages three to 18, the prevalence of keratoconus was found to be as high as one in 334 children. The inconsistency may be due to variations in diagnostic criteria, with some cases of severe astigmatism interpreted as those of keratoconus,

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into a vertical slit, like that of a cat. He reported that he had had a measure of success with the technique, restoring vision to an 18-year-old woman who had previously been unable to count fingers at a distance of 8 inches (20 cm).

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detection. It is common for keratoconus to be diagnosed first in one eye and not until later in the other. As the condition then progresses in both eyes, the vision in the earlier-diagnosed eye will often remain poorer than that in its fellow.

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One way of reducing the risk of rejection is to use a technique called deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty (DALK). In a DALK graft, only the outermost epithelium and the main bulk of the cornea, the stroma, are replaced; the person's rearmost

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factors. Patients with a parent, sibling, or child who has keratoconus have 15 to 67 times higher risk in developing corneal ectasia compared to patients with no affected relatives. Proposed environmental factors include rubbing the eyes and

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People with early keratoconus often notice a minor blurring or distortion of their vision, as well as an increased sensitivity to light, and visit their clinician seeking corrective lenses for reading or driving. At early stages, the

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Corneal intrastromal implantation surgery involving the implantation of a full ring is also available as a treatment option for keratoconus. Evidence supports that the full-ring implant improves vision outcomes for at least a year.

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Although disconcerting to the patient, the effect is normally temporary and after a period of six to eight weeks, the cornea usually returns to its former transparency. The recovery can be aided nonsurgically by bandaging with an

688:, fine stress lines within the cornea caused by stretching and thinning. The striae temporarily disappear while slight pressure is applied to the eyeball. A highly pronounced cone can create a V-shaped indentation in the lower 1207:

seeps into the cornea before Descemet's membrane reseals. The patient experiences pain and a sudden severe clouding of vision, with the cornea taking on a translucent milky-white appearance known as a corneal hydrops.

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of keratoconus will normally have presented themselves long before Munson's sign becomes apparent, and so this finding, though a classic sign of the disease, tends not to be of primary diagnostic importance.

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Janani L, Tanha K, Najafi F, Jadidi K, Nejat F, Hashemian SJ, Dehghani M, Sadeghi M (1 June 2019). "Efficacy of complete rings (MyoRing) in treatment of Keratoconus: a systematic review and meta-analysis".

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Barr JT, Wilson BS, Gordon MO, et al. (January 2006). "Estimation of the incidence and factors predictive of corneal scarring in the Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Keratoconus (CLEK) Study".

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is a developing treatment that aims to strengthen the cornea, however, according to a 2015 Cochrane review, there is insufficient evidence to determine if it is useful in keratoconus. In 2016, however, the

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is less frequently performed than a penetrating keratoplasty, as the outcome is generally less favorable. However, it may be seen as an option in a number of cases, particularly for young people.

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Pantanelli S, MacRae S, Jeong TM, Yoon G (November 2007). "Characterizing the wave aberration in eyes with keratoconus or penetrating keratoplasty using a high-dynamic range wavefront sensor".

4936: 1299:) to diagnose keratoconus, and described how to angle the instrument's mirror so as to best see the conical shape of the cornea. Bowman also attempted to restore vision by pulling on the 1078:

A possible surgical alternative to corneal transplant is the insertion of intrastromal corneal ring segments. A small incision is made in the periphery of the cornea and two thin arcs of

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The acute recovery period can take four to six weeks, and full postoperative vision stabilization often takes a year or more, but most transplants are very stable in the long term. The

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required. Keratoconus is the most common grounds for conducting a penetrating keratoplasty, generally accounting for around a quarter of such procedures. The corneal transplant surgeon

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Lema I, Durán JA, Ruiz C, Díez-Feijoo E, Acera A, Merayo J (August 2008). "Inflammatory response to contact lenses in patients with keratoconus compared with myopic subjects".

561:. A number of studies suggest vigorous eye rubbing contributes to the progression of keratoconus, and people should be discouraged from the practice. Keratoconus differs from 1422:

is a very rare condition that causes corneal thinning primarily at the margins, resulting in a spherical, slightly enlarged eye. It may be genetically related to keratoconus.

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Patients with a parent, sibling, or child who has keratoconus have 15 to 67 times higher risk in developing corneal ectasia compared to patients with no affected relatives.

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The morphology of the cone: 'nipple' (small: 5 mm and near-central), 'oval' (larger, below-center and often sagging), or 'globus' (more than 75% of cornea affected);

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and other visual symptoms, the presence of any history of ocular disease or injury that might affect vision, and the presence of any family history of ocular disease. An

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is often poor. Some individuals have vision in one eye that is markedly worse than the other eye. The disease is often bilateral, though asymmetrical. Some develop

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of the cornea. Nottingham reported the cases of "conical cornea" that had come to his attention, and described several classic features of the disease, including

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visualization of the surface of the cornea by projecting a series of concentric rings of light onto the cornea. A more definitive diagnosis can be obtained using

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Gondhowiardjo TD, van Haeringen NJ, Völker-Dieben HJ, et al. (March 1993). "Analysis of corneal aldehyde dehydrogenase patterns in pathologic corneas".

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Godefrooij DA, van Geuns P, de Wit GA, Wisse RP (1 May 2016). "What Are the Costs of Corneal Cross-linking for the Treatment of Progressive Keratoconus?".

4753: 1331:-causing agent with a pressure dressing. In 1888, the treatment of keratoconus became one of the first practical applications of the then newly invented 1148: 502:

model of inheritance. A rare, autosomal dominant form of severe keratoconus with anterior polar cataract is caused by a mutation in the seed region of

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Nakagawa T, Maeda N, Kosaki R, et al. (June 2009). "Higher-order aberrations due to the posterior corneal surface in patients with keratoconus".

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Corneal transplant for keratoconus, approximately one week after surgery – multiple light reflections indicate folds in the cornea that later resolved

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Traditionally, contact lenses for keratoconus have been the 'hard' or RGP variety, although manufacturers have also produced specialized 'soft' or

407: 6683: 5142: 1279:. However, it was not until 1854 that British physician John Nottingham (1801–1856) clearly described keratoconus and distinguished it from other 3805:

Wagoner MD, Smith SD, Rademaker WJ, Mahmood MA (2001). "Penetrating keratoplasty vs. epikeratoplasty for the surgical treatment of keratoconus".

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suggesting a possibility of keratoconus. Severe cases can exceed the instrument's measuring ability. A further indication can be provided by

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distortion around light sources. Some even notice the images moving relative to one another in time with their heartbeat. The predominant

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piggyback lens combination requires experience on the part of the lens fitter, and tolerance on the part of the person with keratoconus.

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If keratoconus is suspected, the ophthalmologist or optometrist will search for other characteristic findings of the disease by means of

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procedure where the surgeon makes a spoke-like pattern of incisions into the cornea to modify its shape. This early surgical option for

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within the corneal epithelium, is subtle and may not be readily detectable in all cases, but becomes more evident when viewed under a

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Krumeich JH, Kezirian GM (April 2009). "Circular keratotomy to reduce astigmatism and improve vision in stage I and II keratoconus".

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Ioannidis AS, Speedwell L, Nischal KK (February 2005). "Unilateral keratoconus in a child with chronic and persistent eye rubbing".

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A genetic predisposition to keratoconus has been observed, with the disease running in certain families, and incidences reported of

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Pullum KW, Buckley RJ (November 1997). "A study of 530 patients referred for rigid gas permeable scleral contact lens assessment".

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Harthan JS, Gelles JD, Block SS, Tullo W, Morgenstern AS, Su B, Chung D, Yu A, Greenstein SA, Hersh PS, Eiden SB (1 March 2024).

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Yeung K, Eghbali F, Weissman BA (September 1995). "Clinical experience with piggyback contact lens systems on keratoconic eyes".

1469: 4865:"After 15 yrs of wearing hard contact lenses to treat an eye condition called Keratoconus, I've now been prescribed soft lenses" 3868:

Poulsen DM, Kang JJ (July 2015). "Recent advances in the treatment of corneal ectasia with intrastromal corneal ring segments".

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Lindsay RG, Bruce AS, Gutteridge IF (July 2000). "Keratoconus associated with continual eye rubbing due to punctal agenesis".

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in the United States, affecting about one in 2,000 Americans, but some reports place the figure as high as one in 500. In the

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Javadi MA, Motlagh BF, Jafarinasab MR, et al. (November 2005). "Outcomes of penetrating keratoplasty in keratoconus".

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Jinabhai A, Radhakrishnan, Hema, O'Donnell, Clare (23 December 2010). "Pellucid corneal marginal degeneration: A review".

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for a period of 10 to 20 years before the course of the disease generally ceases in the third and fourth decades of life.

506:, a microRNA that is highly expressed in the cornea and anterior lens. Keratoconus is diagnosed more often in people with 2400:

Daxer A, Fratzl P (1997). "Collagen fibril orientation in the human corneal stroma and its implications in keratoconus".

1494: 1319:, the disorder had acquired its current name. The treatment at that time, endorsed by the leading German ophthalmologist 1042:

are left, giving some additional structural integrity to the postgraft cornea. Furthermore, it is possible to transplant

549:, and it is not uncommon for several or all of these diseases to affect one person. Keratoconus is also associated with 6324: 6015: 6000: 3331: 1357:, a cost-effectiveness study estimated the costs of the total treatment for one person as £928 ($ 1,392 U.S.) in the UK 205: 4842: 4328: 2314:

Spoerl E, Wollensak G, Seiler T (July 2004). "Increased resistance of crosslinked cornea against enzymatic digestion".

1759:<403::aid-ajmg11>3.0.co;2-a "Genetic epidemiological study of keratoconus: Evidence for major gene determination" 5212: 5170: 5135: 4941: 3209: 2225: 1287:, weakness of the cornea, and difficulty matching corrective lenses to the patient's vision. In 1859, British surgeon 1016:

In the US, corneal transplants (also known as corneal grafts) for keratoconus are usually performed under sedation as

888:, (RGP) lenses. RGP lenses provide a good level of visual correction, but do not arrest progression of the condition. 283:"... a candle, when looked at, appears like a number of lights, confusedly running into one another" — Nottingham 4392:

Fink BA, Wagner H, Steger-May K, et al. (September 2005). "Differences in keratoconus as a function of gender".

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Practical observations on conical cornea: and on the short sight, and other defects of vision connected with it.

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Researches also have shed light on the role of hormones in the pathophysiology of keratoconus. Hormones such as

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can be observed in around half of keratoconic eyes. The Fleischer ring, caused by deposition of the iron oxide

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Jabbur NS, Stark WJ, Green WR (November 2001). "Corneal ectasia after laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis".

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Krachmer JH, Feder RS, Belin MW (1984). "Keratoconus and related noninflammatory corneal thinning disorders".

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Sykakis E, Karim R, Evans JR, Bunce C, Amissah-Arthur KN, Patwary S, McDonnell PJ, Hamada S (24 March 2015).

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Rubinfeld RS, Traboulsi EI, Arentsen JJ, Eagle RC (June 1990). "Keratoconus after penetrating keratoplasty".

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A specimen of keratoconic cornea taken out six years after diagnosis: thin stroma, wrinkled posterior surface

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Kennedy RH, Bourne WM, Dyer JA (March 1986). "A 48-year clinical and epidemiologic study of keratoconus".

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Rong SS, Ma S, Yu XT, Ma L, Chu WK, Chan T, Wang YM, Young AL, Pang CP, Jhanji V, Chen LJ (4 July 2017).

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provided an early description in a 1748 doctoral dissertation of a case of keratoconus, which he called

3312: 324:. It may cause luminous objects to appear as cylindrical pipes with the same intensity at all points. 6314: 5900: 5895: 5853: 5668: 5584: 4868: 4823: 2138: 2072: 1361:, but this may be as high as $ 6,500 per eye in other countries. A 2013 cost-benefit analysis by the 1341: 1022: 605: 1907:

Feder R, Kshettry P (2005). "Non-inflammatory Ectactic Disorders, Chapter 78". In Krachmer J (ed.).

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Jafri B, Lichter H, Stulting RD (August 2004). "Asymmetric keratoconus attributed to eye rubbing".

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Multiple images made by extremely high contrast light sources as seen by a person with keratoconus

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Bergmanson JP, Farmer EJ (1999). "A return to primitive practice? Radial keratotomy revisited".

3514:"[Efficacy and low cost in keratoconus treatment with rigid gas-permeable contact lens]" 1651:

Romero-Jiménez M, Santodomingo-Rubido J, Wolffsohn JS (1 August 2010). "Keratoconus: a review".

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Rubinstein MP, Sud S (1999). "The use of hybrid lenses in management of the irregular cornea".

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Vogt's striae in keratoconus, University of Iowa Health Care, Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences

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Kandel H, Pesudovs K, Watson SL (March 2020). "Measurement of Quality of Life in Keratoconus".

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of the eye. As the disease progresses, vision deteriorates, sometimes rapidly due to irregular

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A number of studies have indicated keratoconic corneas show signs of increased activity by

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The classic symptom of keratoconus is the perception of multiple "ghost" images, known as

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Hughes AE, Bradley DT, Campbell M, Lechner J, Dash DP, Simpson DA, Willoughby CE (2011).

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cornea to the existing eye tissue, usually using a combination of running and individual

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can be removed during the healing process if they are causing irritation to the person.

6658: 6510: 6455: 6298: 6066: 5995: 5777: 5747: 5693: 5647: 5518: 5391: 5325: 5315: 4699: 4675:"Cost effectiveness of collagen crosslinking for progressive keratoconus in the UK NHS" 4674: 4605: 4581:"The Lifetime Economic Burden of Keratoconus: A Decision Analysis Using a Markov Model" 4580: 4547: 4530: 4235: 4218: 3671: 3646: 3569: 2911: 2875: 2850: 2826: 2809: 2640: 2615: 2561:

Rabonitz Y (2004). "Ectatic Disorders of the Cornea". In Foster C, et al. (eds.).

2266: 2093: 2060: 1857: 1731: 1698: 1393: 1336: 1324: 1300: 1292: 990: 880: 673: 259: 252: 209: 5007: 4819: 4200: 4165: 4130: 3378: 2676: 2483: 1834: 1461: 732:

Once keratoconus has been diagnosed, its degree may be classified by several metrics:

6677: 6578: 6433: 6373: 6090: 6038: 5985: 5915: 5824: 5711: 5688: 5616: 5525: 5330: 5235: 5086: 4926: 4507: 4299: 3967: 3463: 3176: 3141: 3032: 2989: 2731: 2616:"Mutation Altering the miR-184 Seed Region Causes Familial Keratoconus with Cataract" 2370: 2282: 1848: 1758: 1630: 1381: 1312: 1269: 1200: 1043: 697: 641: 633: 554: 499: 468: 353: 301: 189: 185: 98: 82: 3897: 3585: 3530: 3513: 3299: 3048: 2927: 2499: 2456: 2386: 2343: 1653:

Contact Lens & Anterior Eye: The Journal of the British Contact Lens Association

1365:

for Eye Bank Association of America, estimated an average cost of $ 16,500 for each

1070: 6443: 6271: 5652: 5567: 5475: 5353: 5348: 5293: 5288: 4815: 4001: 3763: 3005: 2565:(4th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 889–911. 1419: 1387: 1332: 1323:, was an attempt to physically reshape the cornea by chemical cauterization with a 1169: 918: 526: 460: 456: 372:

Six genes have been found to be associated with the condition. These genes include

305: 248: 5075: 4187:

Davis L (1997). "Keratoconus: Current understanding of diagnosis and management".

3818: 3647:"Repeat penetrating keratoplasty: indications, graft survival, and visual outcome" 2715: 648:

may proceed to measurement of the localized curvature of the cornea with a manual

5029: 4641: 4362: 4095: 3881: 3247: 2786: 2698:

Jamali H, Heydari M, Masihpour N, Khosravi A, Zare M, Shams M, Omrani GR (2023).

2440: 1999: 1606: 758:

Increasing use of corneal topography has led to a decline in use of these terms.

6642: 6593: 6536: 6531: 6488: 6466: 6377: 6368: 6288: 6266: 6078: 6050: 5848: 5716: 5378: 5255: 5207: 5154: 5059: 3163:

Maguire LJ, Bourne WM (August 1989). "Corneal topography of early keratoconus".

2226:"What is Keratoconus Disease - Bulging Eye Disease Causes, Symptoms | NKCF" 1362: 1026: 972: 964: 905: 705: 681: 677: 657: 649: 617: 309: 297: 197: 4899: 3951: 2631: 2297:"The Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Keratoconus (CLEK) Study Archive" 2084: 1664: 6563: 6526: 6450: 6438: 6382: 6343: 6249: 6185: 6164: 6054: 5413: 5278: 5040: 4992: 4596: 4405: 4117:

Colin J, Velou S (February 2003). "Current surgical options for keratoconus".

2954: 2327: 1483: 1237: 1195:

In advanced cases, bulging of the cornea can result in a localized rupture of

1017: 998: 492: 421: 345: 313: 4370: 2470:

Edwards M, McGhee CN, Dean S (December 2001). "The genetics of keratoconus".

2223:

Warren, Catherine. What Causes Keratoconus? National Keratoconus Foundation.

2061:"Genetic associations for keratoconus: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 1784: 1722: 1672: 1614: 6614: 6588: 6462: 6408: 6396: 6281: 6276: 6261: 6257: 5795: 5493: 5470: 5283: 5230: 5225: 5202: 5120: 5070: 4346: 4325: 3662: 3599:

Mamalis N, Anderson CW, Kreisler KR, Lundergan MK, Olson RJ (October 1992).

2699: 1542: 933: 891:

In people with keratoconus, rigid contact lenses improve vision by means of

668: 629: 542: 518: 496: 472: 327: 215:

While the cause is unknown, it is believed to occur due to a combination of

177: 134: 86: 22: 4907: 4708: 4659: 4614: 4556: 4454: 4413: 4378: 4244: 4173: 4138: 4103: 4019: 3959: 3889: 3826: 3791: 3680: 3577: 3539: 3386: 3283: 3255: 2997: 2962: 2919: 2884: 2835: 2794: 2773:

Koenig SB (November 2008). "Bilateral recurrent self-induced keratoconus".

2723: 2649: 2491: 2448: 2335: 2274: 2229: 2102: 2042: 2007: 1792: 1740: 1680: 1622: 1257: 273: 4515: 4307: 3707: 3624: 3498: 3471: 3291: 3184: 3149: 3103: 3040: 2684: 2530: 2413: 2378: 6653: 6418: 5952: 5755: 5386: 5103: 4690: 4445: 4428: 2866: 2034: 1284: 1002: 982: 661: 637: 600:

Corneal topographer, used for mapping the surface curvature of the cornea

522: 514: 464: 440: 432: 278: 220: 216: 149: 4569:

Castroviejo, R.: International Abstract of Surgery, 65:5, December 1937.

4494:

Pearson RM (September 1989). "Kalt, keratoconus, and the contact lens".

4429:"Does ethnic origin influence the incidence or severity of keratoconus?" 4219:"Acute hydrops in the corneal ectasias: associated factors and outcomes" 3724:

Sugita J (1997). "Advances in Corneal Research: Selected Transactions".

754:

The corneal thickness from mild (> 506 μm) to advanced (< 446 μm).

585: 6480: 6423: 5965: 5772: 5703: 5673: 5663: 5270: 4872: 4827: 4650: 4427:

Pearson AR, Soneji B, Sarvananthan N, Sandford-Smith JH (August 2000).

1280: 1213: 1165: 876: 745: 741: 737: 562: 503: 289: 236: 208:. Usually both eyes are affected. In more severe cases a scarring or a 153: 145: 4960: 3772: 2300: 1777:

10.1002/1096-8628(20000828)93:5<403::aid-ajmg11>3.0.co;2-a

1714: 1377:

The following individuals have publicly stated they have keratoconus:

6583: 5485: 5462: 5182: 4987: 4972: 4945: 1328: 1132: 976:

Cornea transplant after one year of healing; two stitches are visible

689: 685: 590: 546: 538: 480: 476: 436: 393: 389: 377: 373: 360:. The effect can worsen in low light conditions, as the dark-adapted 357: 181: 1005:

check the donor corneas for any disease or cellular irregularities.

3512:

Schirmbeck T, Paula JS, Martin LF, Crósio Filho H, Romão E (2005).

2700:"Serum androgens and prolactin levels in patients with keratoconus" 867: 451:. Other studies have suggested that reduced activity by the enzyme 6555: 1440: 1304: 1256: 1186: 1147: 1136: 1115: 1083: 1069: 971: 963: 922: 892: 866: 723: 595: 584: 566: 406: 381: 361: 326: 272: 225: 3601:"Changing trends in the indications for penetrating keratoplasty" 777:

Eccentric steepening Induced myopia and/or astigmatism of ≤ 5.0 D

510:, though the reasons for this link have not yet been determined. 5635: 5197: 5092: 5018: 3339: 1303:

with a fine hook inserted through the cornea and stretching the

1160:

Patients with keratoconus typically present initially with mild

1082:

are slid between the layers of the stroma on either side of the

321: 317: 6640: 6036: 5439: 5168: 5124: 1810:"FDA approves first corneal cross-linking system for treatment" 850:

Corneal thickness is the thinnest measured spot of the cornea.

364:

dilates to expose more of the irregular surface of the cornea.

228:. The underlying mechanism involves changes of the cornea to a 2748:

Kumar V (2007). "Eye: Cornea, Degenerations and Dystrophies".

2513:

Zadnik K, Barr JT, Edrington TB, et al. (December 1998).

1104: 491:

communities have contrarily mapped putative gene locations to

58:

The "cone shaped cornea" that is characteristic of keratoconus

4471:

Ophthalmic Hosp Rep and J R Lond Ophthalmic Hosp. 1859;9:157.

2810:"Keratoconus, allergy, itch, eye-rubbing and hand-dominance" 1491:

The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio

708:, sometimes known as "Placido's disk", can provide a simple 573:

has been associated with the excessive removal of the eye's

320:

in the eye, but there is normally little or no sensation of

4579:

Rebenitsch RL, Kymes SM, Walline JJ, Gordon MO (May 2011).

292:

of keratoconus may be no different from those of any other

3019:

Nordan LT (1997). "Keratoconus: diagnosis and treatment".

847:

Stage is determined if one of the characteristics applies.

813:

Induced myopia and/or astigmatism between 8.01 and 10.00 D

443:

cross-linkages in the stroma, with a simultaneous reduced

3983:"Corneal collagen cross-linking for treating keratoconus" 1340:

transplantation to treat keratoconus was done in 1936 by

795:

Induced myopia and/or astigmatism between 5.00 and 8.00 D

736:

The steepness of greatest curvature from 'mild' (< 45

684:

filter. Similarly, around 50% of subjects exhibit Vogt's

4673:

Salmon HA, Chalk D, Stein K, Frost NA (28 August 2015).

1264:, Nottingham's ground-breaking text on keratoconus, 1854 235:

Initially the condition can typically be corrected with

3090:

Edrington TB, Zadnik K, Barr JT (1995). "Keratoconus".

3064:

The ocular examination : measurements and findings

692:

when the person's gaze is directed downwards, known as

2204: 4843:"Mandy Patinkin saves sight with corneal transplants" 4820:"I have an hereditary eye disease called keratoconus" 4724:"Corneal cross-linking patients need Medicare rebate" 4535:

Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society

4223:

Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society

1576:"Cornea Research Foundation of America - Keratoconus" 251:

such as those of Asian descent. The word is from the

4950: 2743: 2741: 6607: 6554: 6519: 6479: 6391: 6342: 6307: 6248: 6216: 6184: 6163: 6104: 6049: 5945: 5786: 5746: 5702: 5643: 5634: 5484: 5461: 5452: 5377: 5339: 5306: 5269: 5190: 5181: 5050: 4954: 4217:Grewal S, Laibson PR, Cohen EJ, Rapuano CJ (1999). 2202:

National Keratoconus Foundation: Research Overview.

1311:By 1869, when the pioneering Swiss ophthalmologist 159: 141: 128: 120: 112: 92: 76: 62: 40: 35: 459:and oxidising species in the cornea. Whatever the 6129:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION) 4484:Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde. 1869. 4469:On conical cornea and its treatment by operation. 3912:"Intracorneal ring: A good alternative to LASIK?" 2752:(8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. 2591:Inherited Eye Disorders: Diagnosis and Management 3838: 3836: 2851:"Atopy and keratoconus: a multivariate analysis" 2849:Bawazeer AM, Hodge WG, Lorimer B (August 2000). 2519:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 2023:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 1074:A pair of Intacs after insertion into the cornea 4531:"Keratoplasty for the Treatment of Keratoconus" 3743:Keane M, Coster D, Ziaei M, Williams K (2014). 1757:Wang Y, Rabinowitz Y, Rotter J, Yang H (2000). 1466:NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders) 728:Corneal topography showing stage II keratoconus 339:. This effect is most clearly seen with a high 3487:Journal of the American Optometric Association 495:16q and 20q. Most genetic studies agree on an 5136: 4754:"Cost-Benefit Analysis of Corneal Transplant" 3401:"SoftPerm Hybrid Contact Lenses Discontinued" 3332:"Corneal Dystrophies (including Keratoconus)" 1882: 1880: 8: 6203:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia 3085: 3083: 1543:"Facts About the Cornea and Corneal Disease" 180:that results in progressive thinning of the 5531:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy 3990:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3123: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3113: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2054: 2052: 6637: 6401: 6190: 6181: 6059: 6046: 6033: 5640: 5458: 5449: 5436: 5187: 5178: 5165: 5143: 5129: 5121: 4951: 4790:"Warriors' Stephen Curry fixed his vision" 4281: 4279: 4277: 4259:Facts About The Cornea and Corneal Disease 4119:Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery 2808:McMonnies CW, Boneham GC (November 2003). 2173:Grayson's Diseases of the Cornea. Chap. 17 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2129:Caroline P, Andre M, Kinoshita B, Choo J. 1944: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1537: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1529: 1527: 49: 32: 4698: 4649: 4604: 4546: 4444: 4234: 4212: 4210: 4009: 3781: 3771: 3719: 3717: 3670: 3551: 3549: 3529: 2874: 2825: 2639: 2472:Clinical & Experimental Ophthalmology 2092: 1730: 1699:"Pediatric genetic disease of the cornea" 1646: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1507: 640:, is then used to determine the person's 612:of keratoconus frequently begins with an 4935:) is being considered for deletion. See 3196: 3194: 2584: 2582: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1262:Practical observations on conical cornea 760: 3645:Al-Mezaine H, Wagoner MD (March 2006). 2196: 2194: 2192: 2135:Pacific University College of Optometry 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 1453: 1232:reports keratoconus is the most common 985:a lenticule of corneal tissue and then 416:develops by progressive dissolution of 304:becomes impaired at all distances, and 2620:The American Journal of Human Genetics 1570: 1568: 1500:from the original on 8 September 2017. 1472:from the original on 19 February 2017. 589:A schematic diagram showing change in 4058:"The Save Sight Keratoconus Registry" 2814:Clinical & Experimental Optometry 2663:Rabinowitz YS (1998). "Keratoconus". 1697:Fecarotta C, Huang W (27 July 2015). 1553:from the original on 22 November 2016 1164:and myopia, commonly at the onset of 533:Keratoconus has been associated with 455:may be responsible for a build-up of 7: 6011:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy 3651:The British Journal of Ophthalmology 3617:10.1001/archopht.1992.01080220071023 3518:Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia 2855:The British Journal of Ophthalmology 2593:. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis. 1804: 1802: 1764:American Journal of Medical Genetics 1752: 1750: 1692: 1690: 1373:Notable individuals with keratoconus 316:from squinting in order to read, or 6134:non-arteritic anterior (NAION) 5971:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy 3021:International Ophthalmology Clinics 1951:"Keratoconus and related disorders" 1865:from the original on 8 January 2016 1415:also cause thinning of the cornea: 1047:were similar with both procedures. 16:Medical condition involving the eye 6006:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis 3570:10.1097/01.ico.0000159730.45177.cd 3346:from the original on 24 April 2014 2912:10.1097/01.ico.0000121711.58571.8d 2827:10.1111/j.1444-0938.2003.tb03082.x 2267:10.1097/01.ico.0000164831.87593.08 1191:Corneal hydrops due to keratoconus 1066:Intrastromal corneal ring segments 281:seen by a person with keratoconus. 14: 5734:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy 4939:to help reach a consensus. › 4585:American Journal of Ophthalmology 4394:American Journal of Ophthalmology 4288:American Journal of Ophthalmology 3165:American Journal of Ophthalmology 2943:American Journal of Ophthalmology 2484:10.1046/j.1442-9071.2001.d01-16.x 420:, which lies between the corneal 5839:Central retinal artery occlusion 4508:10.1097/00006324-198909000-00011 3870:Current Opinion in Ophthalmology 3464:10.1097/00003226-199711000-00003 3203:"Keratoconus: A clinical update" 3033:10.1097/00004397-199703710-00005 2990:10.1097/00003226-200007000-00034 2371:10.1097/00003226-199303000-00010 1199:, an inner layer of the cornea. 875:In early stages of keratoconus, 783:Vogt's lines, typical topography 5844:Branch retinal artery occlusion 5573:Terrien's marginal degeneration 4888:Contact Lens & Anterior Eye 4482:Zur Behandlung des Keratoconus. 4154:Contact Lens & Anterior Eye 3531:10.1590/S0004-27492005000200012 3367:Contact Lens & Anterior Eye 3066:. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 1317:On the treatment of keratoconus 1135:has been largely superseded by 1010:National Keratoconus Foundation 312:(sensitivity to bright light), 212:may be seen within the cornea. 6684:Disorders of sclera and cornea 5874:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy 5834:Central retinal vein occlusion 5563:Pellucid marginal degeneration 4229:: 187–98, discussion 198–203. 4002:10.1002/14651858.CD010621.pub2 3764:10.1002/14651858.CD009700.pub2 3419:Hybrid Contact Lens Management 1426:Pellucid marginal degeneration 1327:solution and application of a 1100:Corneal collagen cross-linking 871:Rigid gas permeable (RGP) lens 652:, with detection of irregular 620:'s assessment of the person's 1: 5927:Vitelliform macular dystrophy 5818:Posterior vitreous detachment 5684:Persistent pupillary membrane 4630:Journal of Refractive Surgery 4201:10.1016/S0953-4431(96)00201-9 4166:10.1016/S1367-0484(99)80024-1 4131:10.1016/S0886-3350(02)01968-5 3819:10.3928/1081-597X-20010301-08 3807:Journal of Refractive Surgery 3379:10.1016/S1367-0484(99)80044-7 2716:10.1080/08164622.2022.2081067 2677:10.1016/S0039-6257(97)00119-7 1703:Journal of Pediatric Genetics 819:Pachymetry 200 to 400 μm 638:progressively smaller letters 352:of the eye in keratoconus is 6414:Leber's congenital amaurosis 6325:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia 6016:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease 6001:Persistent fetal vasculature 5932:Leber's congenital amaurosis 4642:10.3928/1081597X-20160318-01 4496:Optometry and Vision Science 4363:10.1097/ICL.0000000000001072 4335:. Accessed 24 December 2011. 4300:10.1016/0002-9394(86)90817-2 4271:. Accessed 12 February 2006. 4189:Clinical Eye and Vision Care 4096:10.1001/archopht.119.11.1714 3882:10.1097/icu.0000000000000163 3726:World Congress on the Cornea 3248:10.3928/1081597x-20090401-07 3177:10.1016/0002-9394(89)90001-9 3142:10.1016/0039-6257(84)90094-8 2787:10.1097/ICL.0b013e31818c25eb 2441:10.1097/ICO.0b013e31816a3591 2214:. Accessed 12 February 2006. 2000:10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.01.008 1607:10.1097/ICO.0000000000002170 1384:, American basketball player 1335:, when the French physician 530:keratoconus in some cases. 396:. Others likely also exist. 5213:Meibomian gland dysfunction 4257:US National Eye Institute, 3940:International Ophthalmology 3916:Ophthalmology Times, Europe 3417:Davis Robert, Eiden Barry. 2175:. Mosby. pp. 452–454. 1890:London: J. Churchill, 1854. 1108:patients with keratoconus. 6705: 5937:Birdshot chorioretinopathy 5911:Central serous retinopathy 5729:Focal choroidal excavation 5602:Corneal neovascularization 5419:Subconjunctival hemorrhage 4900:10.1016/j.clae.2010.11.007 3952:10.1007/s10792-019-01121-9 3843:Yanoff M, Duker J (2004). 3752:Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2632:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.014 2085:10.1038/s41598-017-04393-2 1665:10.1016/j.clae.2010.04.006 1180: 1063: 957: 916: 69:KEHR-uh- toh-KOH-nus 20: 6649: 6636: 6404: 6320:Convergence insufficiency 6193: 6062: 6045: 6032: 5961:Primary juvenile glaucoma 5806:Cytomegalovirus retinitis 5448: 5435: 5221: 5177: 5164: 5155:Diseases of the human eye 4841:Moran WR (6 March 2001). 4597:10.1016/j.ajo.2010.10.034 4406:10.1016/j.ajo.2005.03.078 4084:Archives of Ophthalmology 3605:Archives of Ophthalmology 3421:. Contact Lens Spectrum: 3272:Klin. Monbl. Augenheilkd. 2955:10.1016/j.ajo.2004.07.044 2402:Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2328:10.1080/02713680490513182 1413:corneal ectatic disorders 1120:Diagram of MARK incisions 846: 840:Pachymetry ≤ 200 μm 831:Refraction not measurable 57: 48: 5830:Ocular ischemic syndrome 4937:templates for discussion 1958:North Shore Contact Lens 1659:(4): 157–166, quiz 205. 1315:wrote a thesis entitled 801:Pachymetry ≥ 400 μm 740:), 'advanced' (up to 52 21:Not to be confused with 6330:One and a half syndrome 6084:Foster Kennedy syndrome 4331:12 January 2006 at the 4320:Weissman BA, Yeung KK. 4267:31 October 2005 at the 3847:(2nd ed.). Mosby. 3663:10.1136/bjo.2005.079624 3424:"Contact Lens Spectrum" 3130:Survey of Ophthalmology 2750:Robbins Basic Pathology 2665:Survey of Ophthalmology 1359:National Health Service 1080:polymethyl methacrylate 936:, such as the elderly. 744:) or 'severe' (> 52 577:tissue during surgery. 439:that break some of the 258:meaning cornea and the 176:) is a disorder of the 44:KC, KCN, conical cornea 6569:Argyll Robertson pupil 5369:Periorbital cellulitis 4529:Castroviejo R (1948). 4351:Eye & Contact Lens 3318:13 August 2016 at the 3284:10.1055/s-2008-1035103 2775:Eye & Contact Lens 1402:, British TV presenter 1295:(recently invented by 1265: 1230:National Eye Institute 1192: 1157: 1121: 1075: 977: 969: 928: 872: 834:K-reading > 55.00 D 816:K-reading > 53.00 D 729: 601: 593: 461:pathogenetical process 453:aldehyde dehydrogenase 412: 332: 284: 6542:Scintillating scotoma 6208:Kearns–Sayre syndrome 6151:Toxic and nutritional 6124:posterior (PION) 5607:Kayser–Fleischer ring 4062:Keratoconus Australia 2210:22 March 2004 at the 1439:is a complication of 1355:corneal cross-linking 1297:Hermann von Helmholtz 1260: 1190: 1151: 1119: 1073: 1060:Corneal ring implants 1025:of the donor cornea. 975: 967: 926: 870: 727: 632:, such as a standard 599: 588: 565:, which is caused by 410: 344:notice streaking and 330: 276: 219:, environmental, and 198:irregular astigmatism 184:. This may result in 6315:Conjugate gaze palsy 6186:Paralytic strabismus 6119:anterior (AION) 5901:Retinitis pigmentosa 5896:Macular degeneration 5669:Intermediate uveitis 5585:Keratoconjunctivitis 4691:10.1038/eye.2015.151 4446:10.1038/eye.2000.154 2867:10.1136/bjo.84.8.834 2316:Current Eye Research 2035:10.1167/iovs.08-2754 1835:"Keratoconus - NORD" 1277:staphyloma diaphanum 886:rigid, gas-permeable 606:physical examination 6620:Childhood blindness 6599:Parinaud's syndrome 6169:Extraocular muscles 5957:Ocular hypertension 5921:Epiretinal membrane 5906:Retinal haemorrhage 5761:Congenital cataract 4734:on 12 November 2016 4728:Optometry Australia 3430:on 23 December 2010 3407:on 12 October 2010. 2232:on 11 December 2013 2205:http://www.nkcf.org 2077:2017NatSR...7.4620R 1390:, American musician 1348:Society and culture 1321:Albrecht von Graefe 1197:Descemet's membrane 1154:Descemet's membrane 1152:A small rupture of 1040:Descemet's membrane 798:K-reading ≤ 53.00 D 780:K-reading ≤ 48.00 D 624:, particularly the 483:in the tear fluid. 241:soft contact lenses 6146:Leber's hereditary 5813:Retinal detachment 5766:Childhood cataract 5578:Post-LASIK ectasia 5359:Orbital cellulitis 5308:Lacrimal apparatus 5051:External resources 4863:(26 August 2021). 3696:Ophthalmic Surgery 2065:Scientific Reports 1967:on 8 February 2012 1949:Epstein A (2000). 1437:Post-LASIK ectasia 1367:corneal transplant 1266: 1193: 1158: 1129:refractive surgery 1122: 1076: 978: 970: 954:Corneal transplant 929: 873: 730: 714:corneal topography 602: 594: 571:Post-LASIK Ectasia 413: 350:optical aberration 337:monocular polyopia 333: 285: 277:Simulation of the 269:Signs and symptoms 163:~1 in 2,000 people 6671: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6632: 6631: 6628: 6627: 6574:Marcus Gunn pupil 6550: 6549: 6471:Visual impairment 6338: 6337: 6244: 6243: 6231:Fourth-nerve (IV) 6159: 6158: 6096:Optic disc drusen 6028: 6027: 6024: 6023: 5742: 5741: 5630: 5629: 5536:Corneal dystrophy 5431: 5430: 5427: 5426: 5302: 5301: 5118: 5117: 4685:(11): 1504–1511. 4591:(5): 768–773.e2. 4034:"203324Orig2s000" 3946:(12): 2929–2946. 3854:978-0-323-01634-6 3520:(in Portuguese). 3092:Optometry Clinics 3073:978-0-7216-5209-2 3062:Zadnik K (1997). 2759:978-1-4160-2973-1 2600:978-1-57444-839-9 2572:978-0-7817-4206-1 2537:on 3 October 2016 2182:978-0-8151-3654-5 2141:on 7 January 2009 1918:978-0-323-02315-3 1715:10.3233/PGE-14102 1407:Related disorders 1400:Michaela Strachan 1342:Ramón Castroviejo 1273:Burchard Mauchart 1234:corneal dystrophy 1125:Radial keratotomy 1112:Radial keratotomy 960:Cornea transplant 855: 854: 294:refractive defect 202:light sensitivity 167: 166: 130:Diagnostic method 107:light sensitivity 30:Medical condition 6696: 6638: 6402: 6393:Vision disorders 6352:Refractive error 6294:Brown's syndrome 6250:Other strabismus 6236:Sixth-nerve (VI) 6226:Oculomotor (III) 6198:Ophthalmoparesis 6191: 6182: 6173:Binocular vision 6106:Optic neuropathy 6072:optic papillitis 6060: 6047: 6034: 5923:(Macular pucker) 5641: 5622:Band keratopathy 5459: 5450: 5437: 5364:Orbital lymphoma 5251:Blepharophimosis 5241:Blepharochalasis 5188: 5179: 5166: 5145: 5138: 5131: 5122: 4952: 4912: 4911: 4883: 4877: 4876: 4861:@michaelastracha 4857: 4851: 4850: 4838: 4832: 4831: 4818:(5 March 2019). 4812: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4786: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4769: 4763:. Archived from 4761:Restoresight.org 4758: 4750: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4739: 4730:. Archived from 4719: 4713: 4712: 4702: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4653: 4625: 4619: 4618: 4608: 4576: 4570: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4550: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4491: 4485: 4478: 4472: 4465: 4459: 4458: 4448: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4342: 4336: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4283: 4272: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4238: 4214: 4205: 4204: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4038: 4030: 4024: 4023: 4013: 3987: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3934: 3928: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3918:. 1 October 2007 3908: 3902: 3901: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3840: 3831: 3830: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3785: 3775: 3749: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3721: 3712: 3711: 3691: 3685: 3684: 3674: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3553: 3544: 3543: 3533: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3447: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3426:. Archived from 3415: 3409: 3408: 3403:. Archived from 3397: 3391: 3390: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3328: 3322: 3310: 3304: 3303: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3236:J. Refract. Surg 3231: 3225: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3214: 3208:. Archived from 3207: 3198: 3189: 3188: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3125: 3108: 3107: 3087: 3078: 3077: 3059: 3053: 3052: 3016: 3010: 3009: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2938: 2932: 2931: 2895: 2889: 2888: 2878: 2846: 2840: 2839: 2829: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2745: 2736: 2735: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2660: 2654: 2653: 2643: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2589:Merin S (2005). 2586: 2577: 2576: 2558: 2547: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2533:. Archived from 2510: 2504: 2503: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2397: 2391: 2390: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2303:on 30 June 2007. 2299:. Archived from 2293: 2287: 2286: 2249: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2237: 2228:. Archived from 2221: 2215: 2198: 2187: 2186: 2171:Arffa R (1997). 2168: 2151: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2137:. Archived from 2126: 2107: 2106: 2096: 2056: 2047: 2046: 2018: 2012: 2011: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1966: 1960:. Archived from 1955: 1946: 1923: 1922: 1904: 1891: 1884: 1875: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1845: 1839: 1838: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1822: 1820: 1806: 1797: 1796: 1754: 1745: 1744: 1734: 1694: 1685: 1684: 1648: 1635: 1634: 1590: 1584: 1583: 1572: 1563: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1539: 1502: 1501: 1499: 1488: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1458: 1396:, American actor 1205:anterior chamber 1156:(magnified view) 767:Characteristics 761: 537:, which include 204:leading to poor 53: 33: 6704: 6703: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6694: 6693: 6674: 6673: 6672: 6663: 6645: 6624: 6603: 6546: 6515: 6475: 6429:Color blindness 6395: 6387: 6334: 6308:Other binocular 6303: 6240: 6212: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6155: 6100: 6053: 6041: 6020: 5976:Ocular hypotony 5941: 5801:Chorioretinitis 5782: 5738: 5722:Chorioretinitis 5698: 5679:Rubeosis iridis 5657: 5626: 5597:Corneal opacity 5553:Corneal ectasia 5480: 5444: 5423: 5409:Pseudopterygium 5373: 5335: 5298: 5265: 5261:Ankyloblepharon 5217: 5173: 5160: 5159: 5149: 5119: 5114: 5113: 5046: 5045: 4963: 4940: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4885: 4884: 4880: 4859: 4858: 4854: 4840: 4839: 4835: 4814: 4813: 4809: 4799: 4797: 4788: 4787: 4783: 4773: 4771: 4770:on 5 March 2017 4767: 4756: 4752: 4751: 4747: 4737: 4735: 4721: 4720: 4716: 4672: 4671: 4667: 4627: 4626: 4622: 4578: 4577: 4573: 4568: 4564: 4528: 4527: 4523: 4493: 4492: 4488: 4479: 4475: 4466: 4462: 4426: 4425: 4421: 4391: 4390: 4386: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4333:Wayback Machine 4319: 4315: 4285: 4284: 4275: 4269:Wayback Machine 4256: 4252: 4216: 4215: 4208: 4186: 4185: 4181: 4151: 4150: 4146: 4116: 4115: 4111: 4081: 4080: 4076: 4066: 4064: 4056: 4055: 4051: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4032: 4031: 4027: 3996:(3): CD010621. 3985: 3980: 3979: 3975: 3936: 3935: 3931: 3921: 3919: 3910: 3909: 3905: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3855: 3842: 3841: 3834: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3758:(7): CD009700. 3747: 3742: 3741: 3737: 3723: 3722: 3715: 3693: 3692: 3688: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3629: 3627: 3611:(10): 1409–11. 3598: 3597: 3593: 3555: 3554: 3547: 3511: 3510: 3506: 3484: 3483: 3479: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3433: 3431: 3422: 3416: 3412: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3364: 3363: 3359: 3349: 3347: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3320:Wayback Machine 3311: 3307: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3233: 3232: 3228: 3218: 3216: 3212: 3205: 3200: 3199: 3192: 3162: 3161: 3157: 3127: 3126: 3111: 3089: 3088: 3081: 3074: 3061: 3060: 3056: 3018: 3017: 3013: 2975: 2974: 2970: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2897: 2896: 2892: 2848: 2847: 2843: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2772: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2747: 2746: 2739: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2662: 2661: 2657: 2613: 2612: 2608: 2601: 2588: 2587: 2580: 2573: 2560: 2559: 2550: 2540: 2538: 2525:(13): 2537–46. 2512: 2511: 2507: 2469: 2468: 2464: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2399: 2398: 2394: 2356: 2355: 2351: 2313: 2312: 2308: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2251: 2250: 2246: 2242:(14 March 2015) 2235: 2233: 2224: 2222: 2218: 2212:Wayback Machine 2199: 2190: 2183: 2170: 2169: 2154: 2144: 2142: 2128: 2127: 2110: 2058: 2057: 2050: 2020: 2019: 2015: 1994:(11): 2013–21. 1985: 1984: 1980: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1953: 1948: 1947: 1926: 1919: 1906: 1905: 1894: 1885: 1878: 1868: 1866: 1847: 1846: 1842: 1833: 1832: 1828: 1818: 1816: 1808: 1807: 1800: 1756: 1755: 1748: 1696: 1695: 1688: 1650: 1649: 1638: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1574: 1573: 1566: 1556: 1554: 1541: 1540: 1505: 1497: 1486: 1482: 1481: 1477: 1460: 1459: 1455: 1450: 1409: 1375: 1350: 1255: 1226: 1203:from the eye's 1185: 1183:Corneal hydrops 1179: 1177:Corneal hydrops 1146: 1114: 1097: 1068: 1062: 1053: 1051:Epikeratophakia 962: 956: 951: 942: 921: 915: 902: 865: 860: 848: 722: 646:eye examination 626:chief complaint 622:medical history 614:ophthalmologist 583: 569:eye surgery. 559:Marfan syndrome 551:Alport syndrome 535:atopic diseases 508:Down's syndrome 405: 403:Pathophysiology 370: 282: 279:multiple images 271: 206:quality-of-life 194:nearsightedness 116:Early adulthood 103:nearsightedness 72: 31: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6702: 6700: 6692: 6691: 6686: 6676: 6675: 6669: 6668: 6665: 6664: 6662: 6661: 6659:Onchocerciasis 6656: 6650: 6647: 6646: 6641: 6634: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6626: 6625: 6623: 6622: 6617: 6611: 6609: 6605: 6604: 6602: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6560: 6558: 6552: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6545: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6523: 6521: 6517: 6516: 6514: 6513: 6511:Quadrantanopia 6508: 6507: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6485: 6483: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6473: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6456:Oguchi disease 6448: 6447: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6405: 6399: 6389: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6380: 6371: 6366: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6348: 6346: 6340: 6339: 6336: 6335: 6333: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6311: 6309: 6305: 6304: 6302: 6301: 6299:Duane syndrome 6296: 6291: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6279: 6269: 6264: 6254: 6252: 6246: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6239: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6222: 6220: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6194: 6188: 6179: 6161: 6160: 6157: 6156: 6154: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6110: 6108: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6087: 6086: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6067:Optic neuritis 6063: 6057: 6043: 6042: 6037: 6030: 6029: 6026: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5996:Phthisis bulbi 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5879:Coats' disease 5876: 5871: 5869:of prematurity 5866: 5861: 5856: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5827: 5822: 5821: 5820: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5803: 5792: 5790: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5780: 5778:Ectopia lentis 5775: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5763: 5752: 5750: 5744: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5737: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5714: 5708: 5706: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5660: 5658: 5656: 5655: 5650: 5644: 5638: 5636:Vascular tunic 5632: 5631: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5593: 5592: 5582: 5581: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5550: 5549: 5548: 5543: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5522: 5521: 5519:Photokeratitis 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5490: 5488: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5478: 5473: 5467: 5465: 5456: 5446: 5445: 5440: 5433: 5432: 5429: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5400: 5399: 5392:Conjunctivitis 5389: 5383: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5345: 5343: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5333: 5328: 5326:Dacryocystitis 5323: 5318: 5316:Dacryoadenitis 5312: 5310: 5304: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5275: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5194: 5192: 5185: 5175: 5174: 5169: 5162: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5148: 5147: 5140: 5133: 5125: 5116: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5100: 5089: 5078: 5067: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5048: 5047: 5044: 5043: 5032: 5021: 5010: 4995: 4980: 4964: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4955:Classification 4949: 4948: 4924: 4920: 4919:External links 4917: 4914: 4913: 4878: 4871:) – via 4852: 4833: 4826:) – via 4807: 4796:. 5 April 2019 4781: 4745: 4714: 4665: 4620: 4571: 4562: 4521: 4486: 4473: 4460: 4419: 4384: 4357:(3): 121–125. 4337: 4313: 4273: 4250: 4206: 4179: 4144: 4109: 4090:(11): 1714–6. 4074: 4049: 4025: 3973: 3929: 3903: 3860: 3853: 3832: 3797: 3735: 3713: 3686: 3637: 3591: 3545: 3504: 3477: 3442: 3410: 3392: 3357: 3323: 3305: 3261: 3226: 3215:on 15 May 2006 3190: 3155: 3136:(4): 293–322. 3109: 3079: 3072: 3054: 3011: 2968: 2933: 2890: 2841: 2800: 2765: 2758: 2737: 2710:(5): 484–488. 2704:Clin Exp Optom 2690: 2671:(4): 297–319. 2655: 2606: 2599: 2578: 2571: 2548: 2505: 2462: 2419: 2408:(1): 121–129. 2392: 2349: 2306: 2288: 2244: 2216: 2188: 2181: 2152: 2108: 2048: 2013: 1978: 1924: 1917: 1892: 1886:Nottingham J. 1876: 1858:dictionary.com 1840: 1826: 1798: 1771:(5): 403–409. 1746: 1709:(4): 195–207. 1686: 1636: 1601:(3): 386–393. 1585: 1580:www.cornea.org 1564: 1503: 1475: 1452: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1445: 1444: 1434: 1430: 1423: 1411:Several other 1408: 1405: 1404: 1403: 1397: 1394:Mandy Patinkin 1391: 1385: 1374: 1371: 1349: 1346: 1325:silver nitrate 1293:ophthalmoscope 1289:William Bowman 1254: 1251: 1225: 1222: 1181:Main article: 1178: 1175: 1170:contact lenses 1145: 1142: 1113: 1110: 1096: 1093: 1064:Main article: 1061: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1038:layer and the 958:Main article: 955: 952: 950: 947: 941: 938: 917:Main article: 914: 913:Scleral lenses 911: 901: 898: 881:contact lenses 864: 861: 859: 856: 853: 852: 844: 843: 842: 841: 838: 835: 832: 827: 823: 822: 821: 820: 817: 814: 809: 805: 804: 803: 802: 799: 796: 791: 787: 786: 785: 784: 781: 778: 773: 769: 768: 765: 756: 755: 752: 749: 721: 718: 698:clinical signs 674:Fleischer ring 582: 579: 418:Bowman's layer 404: 401: 369: 366: 270: 267: 265:meaning cone. 165: 164: 161: 157: 156: 143: 139: 138: 132: 126: 125: 122: 118: 117: 114: 110: 109: 96: 90: 89: 80: 74: 73: 71: 70: 66: 64: 60: 59: 55: 54: 46: 45: 42: 38: 37: 29: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6701: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6679: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6648: 6644: 6639: 6635: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6612: 6610: 6606: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6579:Adie syndrome 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6557: 6553: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6524: 6522: 6518: 6512: 6509: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6491: 6490: 6487: 6486: 6484: 6482: 6478: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6434:Achromatopsia 6432: 6431: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6406: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6375: 6374:Anisometropia 6372: 6370: 6367: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6354: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6345: 6341: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6312: 6310: 6306: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6259: 6256: 6255: 6253: 6251: 6247: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6215: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6195: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6177:Accommodation 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6115: 6112: 6111: 6109: 6107: 6103: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6091:Optic atrophy 6089: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6077: 6073: 6070: 6069: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6035: 6031: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5991:Keratomycosis 5989: 5987: 5986:Globe rupture 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5944: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5916:Macular edema 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5825:Retinoschisis 5823: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5814: 5811: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5798: 5797: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5789: 5785: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5751: 5749: 5745: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5712:Choroideremia 5710: 5709: 5707: 5705: 5701: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5689:Iridodialysis 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5633: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5617:Arcus senilis 5615: 5613: 5612:Haab's striae 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5586: 5583: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5555: 5554: 5551: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5526:Corneal ulcer 5524: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5504:acanthamoebic 5502: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5495: 5492: 5491: 5489: 5487: 5483: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5464: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5454:Fibrous tunic 5451: 5447: 5443: 5438: 5434: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5398: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5376: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5344: 5342: 5338: 5332: 5331:Xerophthalmia 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5305: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5268: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5236:Lagophthalmos 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5220: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5167: 5163: 5156: 5153: 5152: 5146: 5141: 5139: 5134: 5132: 5127: 5126: 5123: 5110: 5106: 5105: 5101: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5088: 5084: 5083: 5079: 5077: 5073: 5072: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5057: 5056: 5053: 5049: 5042: 5038: 5037: 5033: 5031: 5027: 5026: 5022: 5020: 5016: 5015: 5011: 5009: 5005: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4994: 4990: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4979: 4975: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4965: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4947: 4943: 4938: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4922: 4918: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4882: 4879: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4856: 4853: 4848: 4844: 4837: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4811: 4808: 4795: 4791: 4785: 4782: 4766: 4762: 4755: 4749: 4746: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4718: 4715: 4710: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4669: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4621: 4616: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4575: 4572: 4566: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4525: 4522: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4490: 4487: 4483: 4477: 4474: 4470: 4464: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4420: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4400:(3): 459–68. 4399: 4395: 4388: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4341: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4327: 4324:. eMedicine: 4323: 4317: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4294:(3): 267–73. 4293: 4289: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4263: 4260: 4254: 4251: 4246: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4213: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4183: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4148: 4145: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4125:(2): 379–86. 4124: 4120: 4113: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4078: 4075: 4063: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4035: 4029: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3977: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3933: 3930: 3917: 3913: 3907: 3904: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3861: 3856: 3850: 3846: 3845:Ophthalmology 3839: 3837: 3833: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3813:(2): 138–46. 3812: 3808: 3801: 3798: 3793: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3739: 3736: 3731: 3727: 3720: 3718: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3687: 3682: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3641: 3638: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3595: 3592: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3527: 3524:(2): 219–22. 3523: 3519: 3515: 3508: 3505: 3500: 3496: 3493:(9): 539–43. 3492: 3488: 3481: 3478: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3458:(6): 612–22. 3457: 3453: 3446: 3443: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3414: 3411: 3406: 3402: 3396: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3361: 3358: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3324: 3321: 3317: 3314: 3309: 3306: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3278:(2): 94–100. 3277: 3274:(in German). 3273: 3265: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3242:(4): 357–65. 3241: 3237: 3230: 3227: 3211: 3204: 3197: 3195: 3191: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3171:(2): 107–12. 3170: 3166: 3159: 3156: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3069: 3065: 3058: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3012: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2972: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2937: 2934: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2894: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2845: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2820:(6): 376–84. 2819: 2815: 2811: 2804: 2801: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2769: 2766: 2761: 2755: 2751: 2744: 2742: 2738: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2691: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2659: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2626:(5): 628–33. 2625: 2621: 2617: 2610: 2607: 2602: 2596: 2592: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2568: 2564: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2549: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2509: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2478:(6): 345–51. 2477: 2473: 2466: 2463: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2435:(7): 758–63. 2434: 2430: 2423: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2393: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2365:(2): 146–54. 2364: 2360: 2353: 2350: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2310: 2307: 2302: 2298: 2292: 2289: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2248: 2245: 2231: 2227: 2220: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2206: 2203: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2178: 2174: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2153: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2029:(6): 2660–5. 2028: 2024: 2017: 2014: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1988:Ophthalmology 1982: 1979: 1963: 1959: 1952: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1914: 1910: 1903: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1864: 1860: 1859: 1854: 1852: 1844: 1841: 1836: 1830: 1827: 1815: 1811: 1805: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1765: 1760: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1647: 1645: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1589: 1586: 1581: 1577: 1571: 1569: 1565: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1496: 1492: 1485: 1484:"Keratoconus" 1479: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1462:"Keratoconus" 1457: 1454: 1447: 1442: 1438: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1424: 1421: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1414: 1406: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1386: 1383: 1382:Stephen Curry 1380: 1379: 1378: 1372: 1370: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1313:Johann Horner 1309: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1271: 1263: 1259: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1244: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1201:Aqueous humor 1198: 1189: 1184: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1155: 1150: 1143: 1141: 1140:keratoconus. 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1118: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1101: 1095:Cross-linking 1094: 1092: 1088: 1085: 1081: 1072: 1067: 1059: 1057: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1031: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1014: 1011: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 984: 974: 966: 961: 953: 948: 946: 939: 937: 935: 925: 920: 912: 910: 907: 900:Hybrid lenses 899: 897: 894: 889: 887: 882: 878: 869: 862: 857: 851: 845: 839: 837:Central scars 836: 833: 830: 829: 828: 825: 824: 818: 815: 812: 811: 810: 807: 806: 800: 797: 794: 793: 792: 789: 788: 782: 779: 776: 775: 774: 771: 770: 766: 763: 762: 759: 753: 750: 747: 743: 739: 735: 734: 733: 726: 719: 717: 715: 711: 707: 702: 699: 695: 694:Munson's sign 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 670: 665: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 642:visual acuity 639: 635: 634:Snellen chart 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 604:Prior to any 598: 592: 587: 580: 578: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 555:Down syndrome 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 531: 528: 524: 520: 516: 511: 509: 505: 501: 498: 494: 489: 484: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 457:free radicals 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 435:, a class of 434: 429: 427: 423: 419: 409: 402: 400: 397: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 367: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 342: 338: 329: 325: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 302:Visual acuity 299: 295: 291: 280: 275: 268: 266: 264: 261: 257: 254: 250: 249:ethnic groups 244: 242: 238: 233: 231: 227: 222: 218: 213: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 190:double vision 187: 186:blurry vision 183: 179: 175: 171: 162: 158: 155: 151: 147: 144: 140: 136: 133: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 108: 104: 100: 99:Blurry vision 97: 95: 91: 88: 84: 83:Ophthalmology 81: 79: 75: 68: 67: 65: 63:Pronunciation 61: 56: 52: 47: 43: 39: 34: 28: 24: 19: 6689:Eye diseases 6469: / 6465: / 6444:Monochromacy 6376: / 6272:Heterophoria 6260: / 5959: / 5955: / 5859:hypertensive 5832: / 5653:Ciliary body 5568:Keratoglobus 5557: 5476:Episcleritis 5354:Enophthalmos 5349:Exophthalmos 5294:Trichomegaly 5289:Distichiasis 5191:Inflammation 5102: 5091: 5080: 5069: 5058: 5034: 5023: 5012: 4997: 4982: 4967: 4930: 4894:(2): 56–63. 4891: 4887: 4881: 4855: 4846: 4836: 4810: 4798:. Retrieved 4793: 4784: 4772:. Retrieved 4765:the original 4760: 4748: 4736:. Retrieved 4732:the original 4727: 4717: 4682: 4678: 4668: 4633: 4629: 4623: 4588: 4584: 4574: 4565: 4538: 4534: 4524: 4502:(9): 643–6. 4499: 4495: 4489: 4481: 4476: 4468: 4463: 4439:(4): 625–8. 4436: 4432: 4422: 4397: 4393: 4387: 4354: 4350: 4340: 4321: 4316: 4291: 4287: 4258: 4253: 4226: 4222: 4192: 4188: 4182: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4087: 4083: 4077: 4065:. Retrieved 4061: 4052: 4040:. Retrieved 4028: 3993: 3989: 3976: 3943: 3939: 3932: 3920:. Retrieved 3915: 3906: 3876:(4): 273–7. 3873: 3869: 3863: 3844: 3810: 3806: 3800: 3755: 3751: 3738: 3729: 3725: 3702:(6): 420–2. 3699: 3695: 3689: 3657:(3): 324–7. 3654: 3650: 3640: 3628:. Retrieved 3608: 3604: 3594: 3564:(8): 941–6. 3561: 3557: 3521: 3517: 3507: 3490: 3486: 3480: 3455: 3451: 3445: 3432:. Retrieved 3428:the original 3418: 3413: 3405:the original 3395: 3373:(3): 87–90. 3370: 3366: 3360: 3348:. Retrieved 3335: 3326: 3308: 3275: 3271: 3264: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3217:. Retrieved 3210:the original 3168: 3164: 3158: 3133: 3129: 3098:(3): 65–73. 3095: 3091: 3063: 3057: 3027:(1): 51–63. 3024: 3020: 3014: 2984:(4): 567–9. 2981: 2977: 2971: 2949:(2): 356–7. 2946: 2942: 2936: 2906:(6): 560–4. 2903: 2899: 2893: 2861:(8): 834–6. 2858: 2854: 2844: 2817: 2813: 2803: 2781:(6): 343–4. 2778: 2774: 2768: 2749: 2707: 2703: 2693: 2668: 2664: 2658: 2623: 2619: 2609: 2590: 2562: 2539:. Retrieved 2535:the original 2522: 2518: 2508: 2475: 2471: 2465: 2432: 2428: 2422: 2405: 2401: 2395: 2362: 2358: 2352: 2322:(1): 35–40. 2319: 2315: 2309: 2301:the original 2291: 2261:(1): 16–25. 2258: 2254: 2247: 2234:. Retrieved 2230:the original 2219: 2201: 2172: 2143:. Retrieved 2139:the original 2134: 2068: 2064: 2026: 2022: 2016: 1991: 1987: 1981: 1969:. Retrieved 1962:the original 1957: 1908: 1887: 1867:. Retrieved 1856: 1850: 1843: 1829: 1817:. Retrieved 1813: 1768: 1762: 1706: 1702: 1656: 1652: 1598: 1594: 1588: 1579: 1555:. Retrieved 1549:. May 2016. 1546: 1490: 1478: 1465: 1456: 1443:eye surgery. 1429:examination. 1420:Keratoglobus 1410: 1388:Ashton Irwin 1376: 1351: 1333:contact lens 1316: 1310: 1276: 1267: 1261: 1247: 1242: 1227: 1224:Epidemiology 1210: 1194: 1159: 1123: 1098: 1089: 1077: 1054: 1044:freeze-dried 1032: 1015: 1007: 979: 943: 940:Piggybacking 930: 927:Scleral lens 919:Scleral lens 903: 890: 874: 849: 757: 731: 703: 666: 603: 532: 527:progesterone 512: 485: 447:of protease 430: 414: 398: 371: 334: 306:night vision 286: 262: 255: 245: 234: 214: 173: 169: 168: 27: 18: 6594:Cycloplegia 6537:Photophobia 6532:Hemeralopia 6489:Hemianopsia 6467:Vision loss 6378:Aniseikonia 6369:Astigmatism 6289:Cyclotropia 6267:Hypertropia 6079:Papilledema 6051:Optic nerve 5884:Sickle cell 5864:Purtscher's 5849:Retinopathy 5717:Choroiditis 5558:Keratoconus 5379:Conjunctiva 5256:Xanthelasma 5208:Blepharitis 5098:Keratoconus 5087:Keratoconus 5060:MedlinePlus 4942:Keratoconus 4925:‹ The 4816:@Ashton5SOS 4774:12 November 4738:12 November 4651:1874/336232 4480:Horner JF, 4326:Keratoconus 4322:Keratoconus 4262:Keratoconus 4160:(1): 2–10. 2145:15 December 2071:(1): 4620. 1971:8 September 1851:Keratoconus 1814:www.aoa.org 1363:Lewin Group 1337:Eugène Kalt 1268:The German 1162:astigmatism 1036:endothelium 1027:Vision loss 906:hydrophilic 710:noninvasive 706:keratoscope 704:A handheld 682:cobalt blue 678:hemosiderin 658:retinoscopy 654:astigmatism 650:keratometer 618:optometrist 575:stromal bed 493:chromosomes 488:concordance 394:RXRA-COL5A1 374:BANP-ZNF469 310:photophobia 298:astigmatism 170:Keratoconus 113:Usual onset 41:Other names 36:Keratoconus 6678:Categories 6643:Infections 6564:Anisocoria 6527:Asthenopia 6520:subjective 6504:homonymous 6499:bitemporal 6451:Nyctalopia 6439:Dichromacy 6383:Presbyopia 6344:Refraction 6165:Strabismus 6055:Optic disc 5414:Pinguecula 5279:Trichiasis 5036:DiseasesDB 4722:Walker N. 4636:(5): 355. 4541:: 127–53. 4467:Bowman W, 3773:2328/36030 3732:: 163–166. 3434:12 October 3350:20 January 2563:The Cornea 1869:2 November 1557:5 November 1448:References 1243:vice versa 1018:outpatient 999:blood type 893:tear fluid 467:, such as 449:inhibitors 445:expression 422:epithelium 314:eye strain 230:cone shape 6615:Nystagmus 6589:Mydriasis 6463:Blindness 6409:Amblyopia 6397:Blindness 6357:Hyperopia 6282:Exophoria 6277:Esophoria 6262:Exotropia 6258:Esotropia 5796:Retinitis 5494:Keratitis 5471:Scleritis 5404:Pterygium 5284:Madarosis 5231:Ectropion 5226:Entropion 5203:Chalazion 5071:eMedicine 4847:USA Today 4794:ABC7 News 4371:1542-233X 4195:: 13–22. 3968:172136088 3201:Gupta D. 2732:249545241 2283:220574540 2200:Brown D. 1911:. Mosby. 1785:0148-7299 1723:2146-4596 1673:1476-5411 1631:204029105 1615:0277-3740 1433:affected. 1238:pediatric 1144:Prognosis 1023:rejection 1003:Eye banks 1001:matched. 983:trephines 934:dexterity 858:Treatment 669:slit lamp 630:eye chart 610:diagnosis 581:Diagnosis 543:allergies 519:prolactin 497:autosomal 473:TNF-alpha 465:cytokines 433:proteases 226:allergies 160:Frequency 142:Treatment 135:Slit lamp 87:optometry 78:Specialty 23:Ketyconus 6654:Trachoma 6419:Diplopia 6114:Ischemic 6039:Pathways 5953:Glaucoma 5854:diabetic 5756:Cataract 5694:Synechia 5546:Meesmann 5514:Exposure 5499:herpetic 5397:allergic 5387:Chemosis 5321:Epiphora 5104:Orphanet 4927:template 4908:21185225 4709:26315704 4660:27163622 4615:21310384 4557:16693468 4455:11040911 4414:16083843 4379:38345011 4329:Archived 4265:Archived 4245:10703124 4174:16303397 4139:12648653 4104:11709027 4020:25803325 4011:10645161 3960:31154563 3898:23437970 3890:26058024 3827:11310764 3792:25055058 3783:10714035 3681:16488955 3630:16 April 3586:45054428 3578:16227837 3540:15905944 3387:16303411 3344:Archived 3336:Eye Info 3316:Archived 3300:72600086 3256:19431926 3219:26 March 3049:38203263 2998:10928781 2963:15734005 2928:40534579 2920:15256993 2885:10906086 2836:14632614 2795:18997547 2724:35680612 2650:21996275 2500:46643398 2492:11778802 2457:25238570 2449:18650659 2387:45104769 2344:22361390 2336:15370365 2275:16331035 2236:30 March 2208:Archived 2103:28676647 2043:19029032 2008:17553566 1863:Archived 1793:10951465 1741:27625877 1681:20537579 1623:31599780 1551:Archived 1495:Archived 1470:Archived 1291:used an 1285:polyopia 1281:ectasias 1087:tissue. 879:or soft 826:Stage 4 808:Stage 3 790:Stage 2 772:Stage 1 696:. 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